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Regionality in sake

Sake “Appellations”: Regional Distinction in the Sake World

Does sake have regional character, or “regionality?”

Indeed, it does, but it is not nearly as clearly expressed as that of the wine world. Many prefectures have very apparent regional styles, yet some prefectures have none to speak of, i.e. no real thread of similarity running through the sake of the region (even if much of it is wonderful sake in its own right). But there are enough tendencies and general regional styles to make it interesting and worth studying.

What affects and/or detracts from regionality in sake?

Within a given region that exhibits a regional style, perhaps 60 to 70% of the sake in that region conform to this style; the rest may be slightly different or at times completely so. While 60% is barely a passing grade, it is not enough upon which to base one’s study of the sake world, as is often the case when studying wine, and it leaves the door open for massive vagary, making it all so much more interesting.

The factors that affect regionality include of course the raw materials (rice, water), the climate, the traditional cuisine of the region, and the guild of toji closest to the region. Those things that detract from regionality include the converging and overly similar profiles of ginjo-shu, modern market demands and infrastructure, no INAO-type or AOC-type appellation laws, and of course, the fact that rice can easily be shipped, and indeed is routinely shipped far from its region of origin, which is a function of the nature of the raw materials.

Note, many prefectures are trying now to go back toward defining regional style with locally grown rice, yeast and other things. Also, there is no way the industry could practically go back to stricter laws, even if they wanted to do so. Note, too, that regional distinction is often more evident in lower grades of sake.

As a very general rule of thumb…

Looking at Japan, it appears to run kind of north-to-south yet kind of east-to-west. Bearing that in mind, sake flavor profiles tend to be tight, compact, and fine grained in the north-east, and as one moves further and further south and west, the flavor profiles get wide, broad, and fat. (There are also those that say sake is dry in the east and sweet in the west, but this rule holds true even less often.)

Note, too, that there are plenty of exceptions in terms of entire prefectures having styles that do not fit the region, and plenty of breweries within any prefecture that do not fit that prefecture’s assumed style. And, furthermore, there are a good dollop of regions that have no consistent style running through them.

So while the above holds true to some degree, and is worth remembering, always remember it is but a big generalization, and exceptions of every kind abound.

Styles of Important Regions

The main sake producing regions (in order of volume brewed) are:

  1. Nada. One third of all sake in Japan comes from this district of the city of Kobe in Hyogo Prefecture. Most of the big brewers are there. Why? Historically, great water for brewing and a port for shipping to Tokyo (called Edo back then). Nada sake is generally dryer, sturdy, even-keeled, not so aromatic, masculine.
  2. Fushimi, part of Kyoto city in Kyoto Prefecture. Gekkeikan, the biggest brewer on earth (actually, they might be number two now), is headquartered there. Good water and proximity by train to Tokyo. Soft, slightly sweet, mildly fragrant, elegant. Feminine.
  3. Niigata. Snowy, good rice, lots of mountains with clear water, and a great bunch of master brewers (toji). Very famous for very pristine, clean, dry sake. Perhaps the most popular place for sake brewing in Japan.
  4. Akita. Lots of coal miners 100 years ago, and tons of great rice led to them becoming a sake prefecture. Tight, compact but very well brewed and balanced sake with fine lines of distinction.
  5. Hiroshima. Soft, excellent water. Historically Hiroshima is an important sake prefecture, long famous for quality and technological developments. Soft, slightly sweet sake overall.
  6. Fukushima. Good water and excellent rice. Overall soft and billowing, subtle sake flavors, but really, there are a relatively wide variety of styles from this prefecture, with its three distinctly different climates.

Other prefectures worth remembering for the quality of their sake, if not quantity:

  • Nagano: Soft, light, often fragrant and very approachable
  • Shizuoka: lively, low acid, very easy to drink. Great with fresh fish
  • Kochi: very dry but with backbone
  • Miyagi: Similar to Shizuoka, lively, low acid, very easy to drink. Great with fresh fish
  • Shimane: Nutty, perfect acidity, slightly sweet aromas, often with pumpkin-like notes
  • Yamagata: Hard to nail down a style, but overall flavorful and fragrant, yet reigned in
  • Fukuoka: Big, rice-like flavors, but controlled and deliberate, with moderate aromas
  • Okayama: sweet and full, usually, but with exception

Remember that every prefecture except Kagoshima brews some sake; most have at least a little regional distinction, but not all do. And now for some fun with this…

Regionality in Sake and Quantum Physics

A basic premise of quantum physics is that at the quantum level, energy comes in the dual manifestation of waves and particles. In other words, depending upon how you measure it, energy can behave as if it comes in waves, or it can behave as if it comes in particles. While it should be one or the other, at the quantum mechanical level, it seems to be both at the same time.

There are “waves” too of generalities that are discernible in assessing the sake of many regions of Japan. For example, the wave of Niigata sake is light, dry and refined, the wave of Hiroshima sake is soft and sweet, and the wave of Nada sake is solid and masculine.

However, many of these factors have changed over the decades, along with changes in society and infrastructure. Local food is no longer limited to what was eaten 100 years ago, and the local townsfolk are no longer the only market for any kura. Also, unlike the wine world, sake brewers are not limited to using only local rice. And in fact, very often rice is shipped from one region to another. While this may lead to better sake in more places, it is certainly a chink in the armor of the concept of regional distinction. (Remember the “60 to 70 percent” rule.)

Also, with technological developments and their availability to all brewers, as well as the increasing need for product differentiation among good sake, many kura are producing sake that is unique, and decidedly unlike traditional local styles. The individuality and personal preferences of brewers themselves also have much more room to be expressed than was feasible long ago. And naturally, the media has done its part to extol the virtues and reputations of various producers and products from around the country as well.

What all this has led to over the past few decades is individual kura becoming well known for the sake they brew, irregardless of whether or not it is representative of region, or what that regional style might be. Many consumers no longer look for or ask for sake by region, but rather by producer. Erstwhile, consumers and aficionados might have felt and spoken about liking the sake of a particular region, but more often than not this has migrated toward a list of producers with identity and character that are mutually exclusive of region.

And this, as you have likely already guessed, is the particle aspect of the admittedly tenuous tie between sake and quantum physics. In other words, especially over the last quarter century, consumers look at a sake map of Japan and see particles, individual sake and breweries, rather than waves of regional style.

In truth, the parallels between quantum physics and sake do not run much deeper than that. But my point is not really the comparison of sake with quantum physics. Rather, I am trying to convey that while a few decades ago consumers looked at region first, lately they tend to look at individual producers for their preferences.

Aging sake

Aged sake, or “koshu,” is a topic I am wary of breaching. There are a number of reasons for this reticence, not least of which is that aged sake represents such a miniscule portion of all sake that is out there. Aged sake is hard to get, quite expensive, and overall a totally different animal than regular sake – and certainly NOT better in any unequivocal sense. Nor is there any one proper way to age sake, nor any one universally agreed upon way that aged sake should turn out. In one sense, it amounts to – more than anything else – a diversion in the sake world. Fresh sake is really what warrants most of out attention.

However, before I come off as too harsh or biased, let me add that most of the time I like aged sake: it has its place indeed. And heaven knows we all need our diversions from time to time.

First, a bit of historical background.

Long ago, even as far back as the 13h century, sake was often aged. There were those in the aristocracy that were very fond of such sake, and typical aging periods were three or five years. Yet the truth is that most people back then just wanted a buzz, and so even though aged sake was considered precious and was more expensive, most folks were drinking freshly brewed sake.

However, to finance wars with China and Russia, the government leveled its gaze at the potentially rich source of tax income from sake. When these Meiji-era (late 1800s) tax laws were in place, sake tax comprised more than 30% of all taxes collected.

Furthermore, in order to ensure they got their money as soon as possible, this tax was due the moment the sake was pressed, i.e. when the brewing process was completed . The tax was due, then, before they even sold the sake. Naturally, this kind of eliminated any motivation to lay sake down. No kura wanted to wait three to five years to get their money back, and also risk the sake going south (although rare today, it was not uncommon at all back then, especially with aged sake), and their revenues with it! This served the taxman quite nicely, as a faster flow of sake meant more tax revenues.

This law finally changed about 50 years ago, and brewers are now taxed when the sake ships from the kura (i.e. is sold). This opened the door for renewed aging experimentation. Today, the word koshu means aged sake, but it can also refer to sake that has inadvertently aged for one reason or another, especially in a less than positive light, when compared with newer sake, or “shinshu.” But sake deliberately matured for long periods is known as “choki jukusei-shu.” (The word koshu will always do in a pinch!)

So aging sake is not a new concept. However – and this is important – only a very, very minuscule amount of sake is aged. The amount of sake laid down each year to age for a significant time (more than three years) is about one percent of one percent of one percent; that’s it. Why is this? There are two reasons, in my opinion. One, aged sake is a totally different animal from what we know as premium sake today, and two, aged sake is all over the map in its final form.

Looking at the first reason in more depth, consider the nature of today’s premium ginjo sake: light, aromatic, fruity, and lively are a few words that describe fine sake as we know it today. Aged sake – in its most drastically altered forms – can be dark brown in color, heavy, cloying, musty, and rich. It is completely different from what we know and love as fresh sake. It is, in short, a totally different beverage. Granted, aged sake can be just as complex and deep as fresh ginjo, but otherwise unrecognizable as sake. Sure, it can be enjoyable, but it’s not sake as we have come to know it.

A quick caveat to cover my butt: some sake is aged at lower temperatures and at conditions that do not alter the color or flavor in these above-mentioned ways, but rather in ways that present a more well-rounded sake with greater integration of the various flavors and aromas. This kind of aged sake is very sake-like indeed.

This caveat leads to the second point: methods of aging sake, and the results those methods leads to, are all over the map. There is no one way sake is aged, and there is no one way aged sake should end up. Some brewers will age sake in large tanks at room temperature. Others will use tanks at refrigerated temperatures, others in bottles at various temperatures including freezing temperatures. And, yet others will use hybrid methods, aging in tanks for a few years, draining off to leave sediments behind, transferring to bottles, and aging longer at colder temperatures. There is no “one way.”

Each one of these methods will lead to vastly different results. In general, higher aging temperatures and larger vessels (i.e. tanks vs. bottles) yield more drastic changes in color and heaviness of flavor. Colder temperatures and smaller vessels produce less noticeable, more subtle variations. But it is all referred to as aged sake.

Further complicating all of this is the grade of the sake that was laid down to begin with. Usually, the lower the grade of sake, the less well it stands up to the tests of time. At the risk of oversimplifying, higher grades – like ginjo-shu – aged more gracefully.

For example, on one end of the spectrum is Chiyo no Kame of Ehime, who has one daiginjo product aged ten years at freezing temperatures. It is very hard to tell any difference at all between that and recently brewed sake, other than the flavor is quite well-rounded. On the other end of that spectrum is Daruma Masamune of Gifu, who will age some of their sake for 20 years at room temperature. This stuff is dark like soy sauce, and wildly strong in flavor – although enjoyable to many for what it is.

And, hovering somewhere in the complex middle is Azuma Rikishi of Tochigi, who has the most organized aging program that I know of. They age for three years in a tank, then bottle, aging for five to ten years longer at 6C. (Indeed, this sake is precious.)

And what about aging yourself, either deliberately or inadvertently? Feel free to try it, and know that sake will begin to change noticeably in about a year (depending on storage conditions). You may even like what happens to it over time. But my mantra on aging sake at home reads thus: if you want to taste a sake – THE WAY THE BREWER WANTED YOU TO ENJOY IT – then drink it young, like within a year, and keep it cool until then.

And again, all of this complexity and variation applies to but a drop in the bucket of all sake produced. Hence my reserve at promoting it too much. I think it is much more important for people to know a junmai-shu from a ginjo-shu from a run of the mill table sake, or to know a typical Niigata style from a typical Shizuoka profile. I think it is more important for the world at large to come to know what truly good sake is, how to enjoy it, what to look for, and what to serve on the table with it. Most importantly, we all need to taste enough to know what we personally like in a sake (which is all that really matters).

When this understanding reaches a critical mass, we can all venture into more tangential styles. Otherwise, we have a tendency to immediately head toward the different styles, the diversions, the rare stuff – which in the case of koshu is a very small world, and not necessarily better.

So, at the end of the day, if you remember one line from this tirade, even if it is a slightly limiting generalization, let it be this: By and large, sake does not improve with age. Drink it young.

But, in the end, everything written here is a generalization, and is just my opinion. It’s all about enjoyment. As I mentioned, I myself do enjoy some koshu from time to time. And to not talk about aged sake is to do readers a great disservice.

BY: The Brewing Year Dating System

As explained above, sometimes sake is aged by the kura before being released. And, very often, they will tell you right there on the label that it is “3-year koshu” or “5-year koshu,” with the term “jukusei” (aged, or matured) sometimes used instead. Of course, this information is only useful if you know that this sake was only recently released from the kura – if it has been sitting on someone’s shelf for a while, that time must be factored in.

But sometimes, we simply see an indication of the year in which it was brewed. This should make it all simpler – provided we know how to read that information. The problem stems from two points: one, Japan does not use the same dating system as the West, but rather a year-numbering system based on the reign of the current emperor, and two, a given sake brewing season stretches across two calendar years. Butツ this article will clear it all up for you!

First of all, while Japan does relate to the fact that this is 2003, officially and traditionally it is called Heisei 15, or the 15th year of the era of Heisei. So just remember that and you are half way golden. If a bottle is labeled as being brewed in year 10, that is five years ago, so 1998. A bit of a mathematical hassle, especially when drinking, but not an insurmountable obstacle.

Next, sake brewing starts in the fall of one year and ends in the spring. So, if a sake were labeled only as year 15, we would not know if it was the season of Fall 14 to Spring 15, or Fall 15 to Spring 16. These are two different years as far as brewing is concerned, and can be likened to two totally different vintages in the wine world. So, we need a bit more detail.

This point did not escape the clever folks at the ministry of taxation, who also needed a more efficient way to tax kura on their output. And so long ago they came up with the concept of the “Brewing Year,” or BY. Just like fiscal years can differ from calendar years, in Japan the Brewing Year runs from July 1 to June 30th of the following year. This, then, encompasses the entire brewing season in one 12-month period.

So, BY14 (it might also appear 14BY) ran from July 1 2002 until June 30 2003. And sake brewed last fall and into this spring would be considered part of BY14.

How does this help you? Well, when you see an aged sake labeled, for example, BY10, you know that since Heisei 10 was 1998, this sake was brewed in the season beginning in the fall of 1998, and running into the spring of 1999. So it is about five years old. BY6, as one final example, would be four years older, having been brewed between fall of 1994 and spring of 1995.

Again, since aged sake is such a small drop in the bucket, you will rarely come across this. But if and when you see this arcane nomenclature, you will know precisely how old your sake is.

Sake Temperature: Hot or Cold?

Sake and Temperature

Tokkuri, Guinomi, photo courtesy Robert YellinAt what temperature should you enjoy sake?

As with all things sake-related, there is a long answer and short answer.

Short Answer

Most good sake should be enjoyed slightly chilled. Cheaper sake is served warm.

Long Answer

Indeed, sake was traditionally served warmed. This was related to the fact that sake was, until about 30 or 40 years ago, much, much rougher, fuller, sweeter and woodier than it is now. Warming suited it much better back then.

Wooden (cedar) tanks were used for brewing for centuries, slowly being phased out in the early part of the 20th century. Also, before glass bottles, for centuries sake was then stored in wooden casks (also cedar). As such, they took on a tremendously woody flavor and aroma. While this might have been enjoyable, today’s fine fragrances and subtle flavors would be bludgeoned out of existence by such wood (although you can still enjoy such sake today; it is called “taru-zake”).

But in the end, one big reason sake was warmed in the old days was that it was woodier and rougher, and warming masked a lot of the less-than-refined aspects.

However, about 30 to 40 years ago, things began to change in the sake-brewing world. Brewing technology and the availability of new strains of sake rice (and the equipment to properly handle it) and new pure yeast strains led to sake with bold and lively taste and fragrance profiles. Much more delicate and fragile sake also came about, with fruit and flowery essences all of a sudden becoming part of the equation. Sake like this would be effectively neutered of the very qualities it was brewed to exude, if heated. Today, sake is brewed in stainless steel, ceramic-lined tanks, and stored in bottles. Rice milling technology is immeasurably better than it was even just 30 or 40 years ago. Most premium sake today is delicate, fragrant, and elegant. To heat such sake would be to destroy precisely the flavors and fragrances the brewer worked so hard to have you enjoy!

So: Most good sake should be enjoyed slightly chilled. How chilled? The short answer: like white wine or even a little warmer. Much sake peaks in flavor just below room temperature. The long answer: like wine and any other premium beverage, each sake will be different at even slightly different temperatures. Every sake will appeal to some people at one temperature, and other people at another temperature. What appeals to you most is the best temperature for that sake, for you, on that day.

Sake should never be served too cold

When sake is over-chilled you cannot taste anything. Sure, flaws would be covered up, but so would more refined aspects of the sake, as nothing is discernible. If someone tells you to enjoy sake ice cold, it is because they know their sake is inferior. To propagate such an untruth is unethical and unfair to brewers of fine sake.

But wait! It is not all that simple!

The long answer continues. The truth is, there is plenty of good sake, premium ginjo and sometimes daiginjo even, that goes quite well when gently warmed. (But never too hot!) Plenty indeed. It is too easy, in this era of chilled premium ginjo sake, to overlook how fine warm sake can be, especially in the winter.

So, how do you know whether to warm a sake or to serve it chilled? How can you tell – from the label or otherwise – if a sake will be good when warmed, or better chilled? Fortunately or unfortunately, it is purely a matter of personal preference.

Many sakagura (sake breweries) will tell you that a particular sake of theirs is especially tasty when warmed. Some list that information right on the label. Also, tasting a wide variety of sake at a wide variety of temperatures will soon make it clear which flavor profiles appeal to you at warm temperatures and which do not. So, not surprisingly, the more you taste, the more you will know. Recommendations of friends, restaurateurs, or shopkeepers can also can be useful in knowing which temperatures to serve a sake. But in the end, you have to just taste a lot and figure it out for yourself.


SAKE CONFIDENTAL 

Interested in learning more about sake?

Check out my book “Sake Confidential” on Amazon.

Sake Confidential is the perfect FAQ for beginners, experts, and sommeliers.

Indexed for easy reference with suggested brands and label photos. Includes:

  • Sake Secrets: junmai vs. non-junmai, namazake, aging, dry vs. sweet, ginjo, warm vs. chilled, nigori, water, yeast, rice, regionality
  • How the Industry Really Works: pricing, contests, distribution, glassware, milling, food pairing
  • The Brewer’s Art Revealed: koji-making, brewers’ guilds, grading

 


SAKE INDUSTRY NEWS

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Each issue will consist of four or five short stories culled from public news sources about the sake industry in Japan, as well as one or more slightly longer stories and observations by myself on trends, new developments, or changes within the sake industry in Japan.

 

 

The people

Kuramoto, Toji and Kurabito

Men at Work at Rihaku Brewery

Men at Work at Rihaku Brewery

Sake is produced by the kuramoto (brewery owner), the toji (head sake brewer), and the kurabito (brewery workers). In economic terms, creating the product calls for land, finances and raw materials. The kuramoto is responsible for procuring these, while the toji is responsible for the actual brewing and the hiring and management of the kurabito. Moreover, since sake is brewed only in the winter, the toji and kurabito are essentially “contract” workers.

The Toji System

The toji, or head brewer, is generally associated with one ryuha, or “school” of brewing. These toji ryuha are tied closely to various regions throughout Japan, and there are perhaps 25 schools of toji in existence now. Each school has its own style, to be sure, and that style is evident in the sake they brew, but the differences between various schools of toji is not what it was long ago. Long ago, it was all quite secretive, and the methods employed and refined by one group were never disclosed to other groups. But, over the past several decades, toji and brewers from all over the country readily share information in their shared desire to make better sake.

Chiynosono men workingIn part, the toji system came about with a little help from the government. In 1798 the Shogunate formalized an economic system based on rice. In order to establish tight control, the government decreed that no sake brewing was permitted before the Autumn Equinox. Although not much could be done in the warmer seasons anyway, sake brewers now had to go into the boonies to get the farmers who found themselves with too much free time in the winter.

Toji for the most part are, in the off-season, farmers and fishermen. During the spring, summer and fall, they grow rice or work on fishing boats in their home regions. When the fall harvest is over, or the fishing season ends, there is no longer any work in their villages. This is the season when they head off to sake breweries to work. In Japanese, this traveling for seasonal employment is called “dekasegi.”

Chiyonosono men at workThe various toji schools are usually centered in the snowy regions of Japan, like the northern Tohoku region and Hokuriku region. Although the dekasegi system of travelling far from home for seasonal work was never limited to the sake brewing industry, the pay and status of sake laborers was always relatively higher than other seasonal labor jobs. In general, the competition for jobs in the sake industry has thus been more intense than in other industries employing dekasegi laborers. For more on toji schools, click here.

Learning the Trade

Doi fermentation tank

Doi fermentation tank

A toji basically learns his skill through on-the-job training. There are no texts, and the only way to learn is by watching. In the old days, no one taught anyone else by direct instruction; one was expected to watch and learn. This allowed one to develop a very deeply embedded and strong sense about what to do in each situation. As a result, if you gathered together 100 toji, you would likely find 100 different brewing styles. Indeed, the Japanese saying Sakaya Banryu was coined to express this wide divergence in toji styles.

In modern times, however, this system of learning only by watching has changed somewhat. Today, the government and toji unions encourage those wanting to become toji to formally study fermentation and chemistry.

A Typical Toji Work Day

What precisely does a toji do? Let’s look at a typical day during the high season of sake brewing. The toji, along with the other brewing craftsmen (kurabito), gets up about five in the morning. The first thing to do is to check on the state of the koji. Koji development is an extremely important step in the brewing process, in which the starch in the rice is converted into sugars. Koji is created by propagating koji mold spores (called aspergillus oryzae in English) onto rice. To do this properly, the koji must be mixed regularly and have its temperature checked constantly. This is the first order of business in the early morning.

Koji workersNext, toji check the status of the various tanks of fermenting sake mash. This mash, called moromi in Japanese, is a mixture of koji, rice, water, and yeast. The mash must undergo fermentation to yield alcohol, and the typical fermentation period lasts two to three weeks. However, premium ginjo-shu sake takes longer (usually one month) to ferment.

During the fermentation period, the toji will check daily the status of each moromi tank. This often means making a chemical analysis of the moromi to determine if various compounds are sufficiently present. But the toji does not rely purely on chemical analysis. He relies on his experience and Koji workerseyes to judge the condition of the mash. He looks at the foam on the surface of the moromi, how much carbon dioxide is emanating from it, the amount and appearance of the foam, and even the sound of the foam as it churns and bubbles pop. The toji call this “talking to the moromi.” It ‘s like judging a baby’s health by listening to the baby’s crying. Then, based on this information, adjustments are made.

For example, if the yeast is particularly active and the fermentation is proceeding too quickly, he may cool the tank down a bit to slow the progress of the fermenting moromi. Just how many degrees it needs to be chilled would be a decision based on the toji’s experience. Before there were any major technological developments, sake was brewed exclusively by these kinds of methods, but even today in the age of chemical analysis and modern technology, these skills are just as important as the analysis and modern equipment.

Men at workAfter checking on the moromi and koji, the toji eat breakfast. Following that, preparations are made for the sake that will be brewed that day. This includes washing rice, steaming large amounts of rice, cooling the rice after steaming, adding it to the correct fermenting tanks, and making koji.

There are usually several types of sake being brewed at any one time, each calling for different types of sake rice. Toji must be very careful to keep their rices separate. Also, sake that has completed its fermentation period and is ready will be pressed to separate the clear sake from the remaining rice solids to give what is called genshu, or pure undiluted sake. This process can take all day and last into the evening.

After dinner, they take a break prior to the late-evening check and mixing of the koji. They go to sleep about ten o’clock, with the same work awaiting them the next morning.

Today, scientific theories and systematic testing provide viable explanations for the fermentation process, and the toji craft has lost some of its “magic and mystery.” Yet, we must still admire the toji, for they are dealing daily with a fermentation process that involves microorganisms too small to be seen by the naked eye. Some of these microscopic organisms are floating around in the air, and although some are beneficial to sake production, others are detrimental. Just how to balance the effects of these organisms is something the toji does not with his eyes, but based on his experience, his sense, and his intuition. And in the end a great toji creates a great work of art that science alone could never achieve through automation. Making sake is indeed deep and complicated work. It may seem that a toji’s work is one of simple repetition, but each day he works with nature, not against it, to seemingly control organisms he cannot see, based on what could be called “the eyes of his heart.”

Decline in Number of Toji

Along with a general decline in the number of sake breweries in Japan, the number of toji as well is declining owing to advanced age, the lack of successors, and the utilization of mass-production techniques. The average toji age is 65. Successors are hard to find, as more and more Japanese youth prefer the excitement and opportunites of the big cities to life in small farming and fishing villages. The toji take pride in their work, but they also know it is hard work on a seasonal basis and thus in general they refrain from forcing their children to follow in their footsteps.The number of toji is expected to decline rapidly in the years ahead, but some kuramoto are working to remedy this situation. Some are moving away from “contracted” seasonal labor and offering more permanent employment opportunities. Others are attempting to automate certain operations, like bottle transport, which do not require a “handmade” touch. Some are introducing computers and new technologies to “simulate” — via fuzzy logic — the experience and intuition of the toji. Although many smaller brewers are experimenting with ways to combine automation technologies with centuries-old hand-made brewing techniques, their objectives remain quite different from the large-scale mass producers of sake. The objective of the small brewer is not to produce greater volume, but rather to continue producing unique “hand-made” sake with technologies and employment practices that ensure its future survival.

Famous Toji Schools

There are about 25 toji ryuha throughout Japan. The largest three are by far Nanbu toji from Iwate, Echigo toji from Niigata, and Tajima toji from Hyogo. Their names come from the old geographical names for their respective regions. As might be expected, Nanbu toji were centered around Tohoku, Echigo toji near Niigata and Kanto, and Tajima toji in Nada and Fushimi. Other examples include Akitsu toji from Hiroshima, Yamanouchi toji from Akita, and Tanba toji, also from Hyogo.

Although consumer demand has often come to dictate style more than in the past, some semblance of regional distinction remains. Sake made by Echigo toji is quite often “tanrei karakuchi,” or dry and clean. The soft and mellow sake of Nada and Kyoto is indicative of that made by Tajima toji, and Nanbu toji sake is generally simple, straightforward, but well pronounced; a personal favorite as far as styles go. Others recommendable for their distinction and memorability include the sake of Hiroshima’s Akitsu toji, and that of the Izumo toji of Shimane, albeit a bit harder to find.

As the number of kura (sake breweries) has drastically declined, naturally so has the number of toji in most ryuha. The number of Echigo toji has dropped to one-third what it was at the beginning of the Showa era, and the number of Tajima toji, the largest at the beginning of the Showa era, has dropped to one-tenth the number of members. Only the Nanbu toji have retained strength in the ranks, having maintained the same number of members for the past 40 years or so. This may be due to the training and strict qualifications testing provided. Amongst prize-winning sake, the Nanbu toji names are appearing with increasing frequency.

With the convenience of modern transportation systems, the toji are venturing farther and farther from home. They very often travel together with the same crew of kurabito (workers). For example, Nanbu toji and their merry bands can be found as far south as Kansai. They have come to naturally fill the voids left by the decreasing number of Echigo toji.

As interest increases in the factors that go into brewing good sake, the name of the toji, and where he or she is from, is often listed on the label. Paying attention to toji helps develop a sense for the particular styles and distinctions of the various regions.

The koji

Koji is one of the crucial ingredients in sake brewing

Just what is Koji?

Koji baskets

Koji being cultivated in small trays

Koji is steamed rice that has had koji-kin, or koji mold spores, cultivated onto it. (See photo at right, which is a grain of rice cultivated with koji mold.) This magical mold, for which the official scientific name is Aspergillus Oryzae, creates several enzymes as it propagates, and these are what break the starches in rice into sugars that can be fermented by the yeast cells, which then give off carbon dioxide and alcohol. Without koji, there is no sake. For what it is worth, sake is not the only beverage in the world using koji. There are a couple of others throughout Asia. But the brewing methodologies are vastly different.

A quick comparison between the production methods of sake versus other alcoholic beverages may prove useful. Wine is fermented from grapes, which already contain sugar (glucose, to be chemically correct). This is what yeast cells need for food. There are other kinds of sugars, but they cannot be metabolized by yeast. So in winemaking, yeast is added to a liquid already containing sugar.

Beer and other beverages made from malted barley begin not with sugars, but with starches, which are molecularly monstrous. Here, brewers employ enzymes brought out in the barley malting process (where the barley is moistened and warmed, i.e. the sprouting process begun, albeit artificially) to break down the starches into sugars. These enzymes, which activate within very specific temperature ranges, chop the starch chains into much smaller sugar molecules. Some will be glucose and feed the yeast, some will be chemically different sugars and add to flavor.

Koji spore

Grain of rice on which koji is propagating

Back to sake. Sake is brewed from white rice stripped of its husk. There can be no malting, so the starch-chopping enzymes must come from somewhere else. Enter the cooperative koji. The dark-green spores, sprinkled onto steamed rice, graciously provide the necessary enzymes for saccharification. There are many enzymes involved in this process. Some act to create fermentable sugar (glucose), others act more to create sugars that will not ferment but will instead affect texture and flavor in a sake.

Koji production (known as seigiku) is at the very heart of the sake-brewing process. The leverage it holds over the final product is immense. From a good beginning all things flow naturally, and so it is with koji. Koji is cultivated in a special room in the kura (brewery) called the koji muro. When ready, it is mixed with more steamed rice. Initially, yeast and water are added here. In later stages of a batch, koji is transferred into the large tank within which the sake-to-be is fermenting away. It continues to do its sugar -making work, while imparting the effects of its own sensitive production, until fermentation is finished.

As an example of how sensitive yet powerful koji can be, I once had sake presented by the brewer with an apology: “Look, we just rebuilt our koji muro last year. The wood used for the walls was not quite as ready as we thought, and you can unfortunately taste the cedar wood in the sake.” Sure enough, delicious though the sake was, the faint essence of cedar was evident in the flavor and fragrance.

In general, the koji-making process takes 40 to 45 hours. During this time, the developing koji is checked and mixed constantly to ensure proper temperature and moisture, as well as an even distribution of both. As the koji mold works its way into the center of the steamed rice grains, heat is generated. Different temperatures are ideal at different stages of the process. Not only that, but these ideals will change depending on the sought-after flavor profile. The type of rice, pH and mineral content of the water, and a myriad of other things affect the way koji is made as well. These variables compound to create a process that is more art and intuition than science.

When koji is ready for use, it looks like rice with a small amount of white frosting on each grain. The smell and taste are slightly sweet, as might be expected. There is a characteristic light chestnut-like aroma that wafts wonderfully up.

In response to the demands of the times, there are several manifestations of automatic koji-making machines. Some of these are fully automatic; insert ingredients here, stand back for 42 hours, here’s your kooji. Others allow much more human intervention, some being only closed-loop temperature controlled tables. Even robotic-finger kooji mixers are out there. All of these work well; some better than others. On the quality-versus-labor-saved curve, these score very high indeed. But it is interesting to note that almost every kura in the country makes kooji for their best sake by hand.


SAKE CONFIDENTAL 

Interested in learning more about sake?

Check out my book “Sake Confidential” on Amazon.

Sake Confidential is the perfect FAQ for beginners, experts, and sommeliers.

Indexed for easy reference with suggested brands and label photos. Includes:

  • Sake Secrets: junmai vs. non-junmai, namazake, aging, dry vs. sweet, ginjo, warm vs. chilled, nigori, water, yeast, rice, regionality
  • How the Industry Really Works: pricing, contests, distribution, glassware, milling, food pairing
  • The Brewer’s Art Revealed: koji-making, brewers’ guilds, grading

 


SAKE INDUSTRY NEWS

If you are interested in staying up to date with what is happening within the Sake Industry and also information on more advanced Sake topics then Sake Industry News is just for you!

Sake Industry News is a paid subscription newsletter that is sent on the first and 15th of each month. Get news from the sake industry in Japan – including trends, business news, changes and developments, and technical information on sake types and production methods that are well beyond the basics – sent right to your inbox. Subscribe here today! 

Each issue will consist of four or five short stories culled from public news sources about the sake industry in Japan, as well as one or more slightly longer stories and observations by myself on trends, new developments, or changes within the sake industry in Japan.

 

The yeast

Importance of Yeast in Sake Brewing

The importance of yeast in the production of sake is extremely important, as yeast influences many elements of sake taste, most noticeably sake fragrance. And since our sense of taste is highly influenced by (if not dependent on) our sense of smell, this is crucially important. Indeed, the proper tasting of sake requires a well-developed sense of smell. There is the initial sniff, noting the general fragrance of a sake. Then comes the fukumi-ka, or the fragrance that arises as you hold the sake in your mouth and breathe. There is also the modori-ka, a third fragrance that becomes discernible immediately after you expel or swallow a sip. Yeast will affect all of these.

What is Yeast? What Does it Do?

Yeast converts sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. It is the heart of the creation of all alcoholic beverages. But different yeast strains will produce different things, like esters, alcohols, and acids and other chemical compounds that affect the nuances of fragrance and flavor.

Each yeast will give rise to its own specific array of chemical compounds, with scary names like ethyln caproate and isamyl acetate. These will be present in varying quantities, depending on the choice of yeast and the successful progress (or lack thereof) of the fermentation. Which esters, alcohols and
other compounds are produced are highly dependent on the temperature at which fermentation takes place. All of this will help to determine the character and nature of the sake. In this way, the choice of yeast also directly affects flavor.

Are All Yeast the Same?

How does one strain of yeast physically differ from another? There are many ways, but not all are so obvious. It is often not simply a matter of size or physical appearance. In fact, when the cells of two yeast strains are set next to each other in a microscope, the average person is not likely to be able to tell the difference.

The differences are more evident in other things Like the length of the life cycle of the yeast: how long will it work before becoming dormant, or how robust or fickle it is against alcohol and/or temperature.Which alcohols, esters and other things it tends to give off as by-products of its life cycle during fermentation is of course, another important factor.

How is Yeast Developed?

Although we speak of a yeast being “developed,” it is more a matter of being isolated. The process of coming up with a new, specialized yeast strain, usually takes about three years, and is actually a kind of reverse engineering.

Yeast is usually isolated by starting with a tank of sake being made. It may be one in which many, many strains of naturally occurring (i.e. floating in the air) yeast strains were allowed to initiate the fermentation. Some of the thick foam on the top of the moromi (the fermenting mash) is taken and analyzed. This foam has the highest concentration of yeast cells in the tank. If the sake comes out well, the strain of yeast that is most populous is isolated and reproduced for further study. If it continues to demonstrate the desired qualities, it is made available on a larger scale.

History of Yeast in Japan

In the early 1900s, the Central Brewers Union first began taking pure yeast strains that had been isolated (usually by larger breweries from particularly good tanks of sake) and making them available to kura (breweries) across the nation in pure form, usually in small glass vials. These yeast strains have since been assigned numbers by the Central Brewers Union.

Common Yeast Strains

At present, they are up to number 15. Each one has its own special qualities. Yeast #1 through #6 are no longer in use, as apparently the acid produced was too strong.

Yeast #7, #9, and #10 are perhaps the most important these days. Yeast #7, discovered by Masumi of Nagano, is the single most commonly used yeast in the country, with its mellow fragrance and robust strength during fermentation. Yeast #9 is the most common yeast for ginjo-shu, due to its wonderful fragrance-creating abilities, and fairly healthy constitution during fermentation. Yeast #10 produces a lower-acid, fine-grained flavor in sake, but is a bit fickle at all but the lowest fermentation temperatures.

More recently, Yeast #14 (which is low in acidity with lots of pears and apples in the fragrance) and Yeast #15 (which is very fragrant but not of such robust constitution) are often seen used in finer sake, especially in particular regions.

There are, on top of the publicly available yeast strains, dozens of others that are used on varying scales throughout Japan. Many of these are proprietary, having been developed by kura and used only by them, or more commonly, developed by prefectural brewing research institutes and used by kura in that prefecture.

Many of these are wonderful indeed, and go well with the water and rice of that region. A few examples of this include F701, also known as Utsukushima Yume Kobo from Fukushima, the wonderfully fragrant Alps Kobo from Nagano, and HD-1 and NEW-5, which help Shizuoka sake be the wonderfully drinkable brew that it is.

And finally, no discussion of sake yeast would be complete without mention of the awa-nashi kobo, or foamless yeasts. Yeast #6, #7, #9 and #10 all have cousins that do almost an identical job without producing the massive amounts of foam that rise and fall and breathe majestically throughout the course of the fermentation. These are designated by adding 01 to the number. For example, #901 is a foamless version of #9.

Why foamless? This saves hours and hours of grueling cleaning time, scraping the remnants of the foam from the side of a tank before starting the next batch. Also, since a third of each tank must usually be reserved for the rising foam, more sake can be brewed with less space using such awa-nashi yeast.

However, some experts say that the these foamless versions are not quite what their bubbling cousins are, in terms of the final product. Fragrance and flavors are not quite as refined, although they may be 99 percent of the way there, say some. This is somewhat unsubstantiated, and may be nonsense. It is most likely affected by preconceived notions, but such talk has been heard.

Often these yeasts will be given working names, names that are more romantic than a simple number. One example given above is the F701 from Fukushima, known much more commonly as the Utsukushima Yume (dream) Kobo. Others include mighty #9,also known as Kumamoto Kobo, in honor of the prefecture from which it originally comes (more specifically, from the kura that brews the fragrant and very fruity sake called Koro. Number 10 was discovered by a gent named Chikara Ogawa, so that it is often called Ogawa Kobo (especially in northern Japan, where it was isolated). Number 14 is often referred to as Kanazawa Kobo, and #15 is commonly known as AK-1, for Akita Kobo, both in recognition of their origins.

Why Pay Attention to Yeast?

Yeast is one of the newer developments in the sake world that we can all follow with interest. Over the last ten years or so, dozens of new yeast strains have been developed and come into use. This has been one of those great technical advances in the sake world — one factor that separates great ginjo of today from the run-of-the-mill sake of yesteryear.

Although it may not make much of a difference once you are sipping, learning to identify the qualities of a yeast strain and searching for and comparing fragrance and flavor profiles can be extremely instrumental in improving your palate. It can also simply be a lot of fun.

More and more commonly, especially for decent sake, the yeast used is listed on the bottle. Be sure to look for and try to identify the various special qualities of the various yeast strains.

It is also interesting and important to note that yeast development is one area of progress that has taken place outside of the actual brewing process, yet still affects the final product greatly. In other words, great sake might be brewed using a brand new yeast strain, but the actual brewing process still relies on old hand-made ways that eschew modern machinery.

Yeast table

#1 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#2 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#3 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#4 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#5 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#6 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#7 Masumi. Mellow fragrance, strong in fermentation. Most commonly used yeast in the country.
#8 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#9 Koro. High fragrance, solid fermentation. Many ginjo yeasts are #9-based strains.
#10 Tohoku Moromi. Low acid, fine-grained flavor. Commonly used in Tohoku.
#11 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#12 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#13 No longer used, as acidity too strong.
#14 Unknown. Also known as “Kanazawa Kobo.” Used a lot in Shizuoka too. Low acid, pears and apples in nose.
#15 Akita Moromi. “AK-1,” or “Akita Hana Kobo.” Very lively fragrance and characteristic nose/flavor; but needs to ferment slowly and at low temperatures.
#601 “Awa nashi” or foamless version of the 6, 7, 9 and 10 yeasts. Nothing else changes, say most.
#701 Same as 601 above.
#901 Same as 601 above.
#1001 Same as 601 above.

The rice

Sakamai or Rice Variety

chikurin riceThere are several types of rice used to make Japanese sake, and each type yields specific flavor profiles. Keep in mind that these nine types of rice are only part of the battle. How sake is brewed and the water used are the other parts of the story. Further, there is a massive range of styles and tremendous overlap across the board. Finally, the degree of rice milling plays a major role in the final product.

1. Yamada Nishiki Rice

From Hyogo, Okayama and Fukuoka. The so-called King of Sake Rice. Fragrant, well-blended soft flavor. Representative Sake Brands: About any daiginjo in the country (slight exaggeration). Hard to give one good recommendation. Nadagiku, Tatsuriki, Okuharima (all Hyogo) and Ginban (Toyama) are good examples.

2. Omachi Rice

From Okayama. Generally less fragrant, more defined flavor elements, more earthiness. The only pure strain of rice left in Japan (to my knowledge, so don’ argue for this point should you choose to quote me). Representative Sake Brands: Bizen Sake no Hitosuji (Okayama). Most visible users of Omachi. Use it across a whole range of sake types . Lots of it good warmed. Some fermented in Bizen-yaki tanks. Also look for Yorokobi no Izumi form Okayama.

3. Miyama Nishiki Rice

From Iwate, Akita, Yamagata, Miyagi, Fukushima, and Nagano. Slightly less dry sake, more rice-like flavor, more mouth feel, and quiet nose. Representative Sake Brands: Sharaku (Fukushima), Hamachidori (Iwate). Both sake have great mouth/tongue feel and presence.

4. Gohyakumangoku Rice

From Niigata, Fukushima, Toyama, and Ishikawa. Smooth and clean and dry and slightly fragrant. Representative Sake Brands: Shimeharitsuru and Kubota, or just about anything from Niigata.

5. Oseto Rice

From Kagawa. Rich and earthy, very distinctive. Representative Sake Brands: Ayakiku (Kagawa). They use only Oseto rice here, in all their sake.

6. Hatta Nishiki Rice

From Hiroshima. Earthy undertones, usually in the background. Rich flavor, quite nose. Representative Sake Brands: Kamoizumi and Fukucho from Hiroshima. Two very different styles, the former being wilder and earthy and the latter being softer and sweeter.

7. Tamazakae Rice

From Tottori and Shiga. Soft and deep, with complex background activity when brewed right. Representative Sake Brands: Kimitsukasa (Tottori ). Hard to find but at Akaoni.

8. Kame no O

From Niigata and Yamagata. Rich and flavorful and a bit drier and more acidic than other rice types, but I have not had enough to intelligently comment. Representative Sake Brands: Although there are several across Niigata and Tohoku, look for Kame no O (Niigata, Kusumi Shuzo).

9. Dewa San San

From Yamagata and Niigata. Complex, not so dry, midly fragrant. Top of PageRepresentative Sake Brands: Fumitoi (Yamagata). Bottles are clearly marked with blue sticker, so easy to find Dewa 33 sake, always from Yamagata.

Rice Milling – Seimaibuai

Premium sake is brewed with special rice in which the starch component (the shinpaku or “white heart”) is concentrated at the center of the grain, with proteins, fats, and amino acids located toward the outside.

Milling

With increased milling, one can remove more of the fats, proteins, and amino acids that lead to unwanted flavors and aromas in the brewing process. Ginjo-shu (premium sake) has at least 40% or more milled away. Daiginjo (super premium sake) has at least 50% or more milled away.

Seimaibuai = Degree rice is milled before brewing

Milling none

Yamada Nishiki Rice
A top-grade sake rice
Unmilled

milling 45 ground away

45% Milled Away
Seimaibuai = 55%
Ginjo Grade

milling 55 ground away

55% Milled Away
Seimaibuai = 45%
Daiginjo Grade

Rice and Sake Prior to 1945

Rice has always been a staple part of the Japanese diet. Up until roughly 50 years ago, rice was in short supply, with production volumes unable to meet domestic demand. Thus, the rice available for sake brewing was understandably limited, and brewing itself was confined to the winter months, when lower temperatures and cleaner winter air provided the best conditions for brewing and storage (natural refrigeration helped keep sake fresh for consumption months after it was brewed). Such conditions made large-scale brewing unfeasible until recent times, and resulted in regional sake brands that closely matched the local climate, cuisine, and tastes of the local population. These fairly distinct regional styles can still be identified today.One exception, however, is a generic type of sake produced during the Edo period (1600-1868). During this period, the new Warrior Class (samurai) had wrested power from the nobility, and demand for sake increased dramatically amongst these warriors. Sake brewers (most notably in the Nada brewing region between Kobe and Osaka) began to produce sake with a refined flavor that appealed to these upper-class Edo consumers. Although Nada-type sake had no overwhelmingly strong characteristics, there was nothing to dislike about it, and its appeal was therefore widespread . Interestingly enough, its appeal is still strong today.

Rice bag

When the sake rice arrives at the sake brewery, it comes as genmai (unmilled, brown rice) in 30 kilogram brown paper bags, with a label on it.

Rice bag label

Rice bag label

The rice type, Yamada Nishiki, and its prefecture of origin, in this case Hyogo, is printed above the two stamps near the center. Below that, in a big, bold stamp, it says “tokujo,” which indicates it is the highest of the five classes of rice. The smaller stamp is the name of the inspector. The four stamped characters in the lower box are the name of the rice grower, while the green label indicates it is Yamada Nishiki from “Special A designated plots.”

Sake brewing process

Five crucial elements are involved in brewing sake — water, rice, technical skill, yeast, and land / weather. More than anything else, sake is a result of a brewing process that uses rice and lots of water.

In fact, water comprises as much as 80% of the final product, so fine water and fine rice are natural prerequisites if one hopes to brew great sake. But beyond that, the technical skill needed to pull this all off lies with the toji (head brewers), the type of yeast they use, and the limitations entailed by local land and weather conditions. Please visit the links shown above for a detailed review of the crucial ingredients.

Quick overview

Rice is washed and steam-cooked. This is then mixed with yeast and koji (rice cultivated with a mold known technically as aspergillus oryzae). The whole mix is then allowed to ferment, with more rice, koji, and water added in three batches over four days. This fermentation, which occurs in a large tank, is called shikomi. The quality of the rice, the degree to which the koji mold has propagated, temperature variations, and other factors are different for each shikomi. This mash is allowed to sit from 18 to 32 days, after which it is pressed, filtered and blended. This would be enough to get you through most conversations. But let us look at the main steps and processes a bit more closely.

Rice Milling

Imada yamadanishiki 70/35Note the white opaque starch packet in the center of many of the grains.

After proper sake rice (in the case of premium sake, anyway) has been secured, it is milled, or polished, to prepare it for brewing good sake. This is not as simple as it might sound, since it must be done gently so as to not generate too much heat (which adversely affects water absorption) or not crack the rice kernels (which is not good for the fermentation process). In the photo on left, the rice in top left corner is unmilled, the rice next to it has only 70% of kernel remaining, while the rice at bottom has been milled so only 35% remains. The photo at top right (with red background) shows rice ground to 50%. The amount of milling greatly influences the taste. For more on this topic, please visit Types of Sake page.

Washing and Soaking

Making sakeNext, the white powder (called nuka) left on the rice after polishing is washed away, as this makes a significant difference in the final quality of the steamed rice. (It also affects the flavor of table rice; try washing your rice very thoroughly and notice the difference in consistency and flavor.) Following that, it is soaked to attain a certain water content deemed optimum for steaming that particular rice. The degree to which the rice has been milled in the previous step determines what its pre-steaming water content should be. The more a rice has been polished, the faster it absorbs water and the shorter the soaking time. Often it is done for as little as a stopwatch-measured minute, sometimes it is done overnight.

Steaming

Next the rice is steamed. Note this is different from the way table rice is prepared. It is not mixed with water Kuji steaming riceand brought to a boil; rather, steam is brought up through the bottom of the steaming vat (traditionally called a koshiki) to work its way through the rice. This gives a firmer consistency and slightly harder outside surface and softer center. Generally, a batch of steamed rice is divided up, with some going to have koji mold sprinkled over it, and some going directly to the fermentation vat. (Photo at left: rice steaming in koshiki, or vat).

Koji Making (Seigiku)

Rice mold (photo by Kenji Nachi)This is the heart of the entire brewing process, really, and could have several chapters, if not books, written about it. Summarizing, k(LEFT) Koji being cultivated in small trays (Right) A grain of rice cultavated with koji mold (photos by Kenji Nachi)oji mold in the form of a dark, fine powder is sprinkled on steamed rice that has been cooled. It is then taken to a special room within which a higher than average humidity and temperature are maintained. Over the next 36 to 45 hours, the developing koji is checked, mixed and re-arranged constantly. The final product looks like rice grains with a slight frosting on them, and smells faintly of sweet chestnuts. Koji is used at least four times throughout the process, and is always made fresh and used immediately. Therefore, any one batch goes through the “heart of the process” at least four times. (Photo: Koji being cultivated in small trays, and a grain of rice cultavated with koji mold).

The yeast starter (shubo or moto)

Making ricePhoto at right: the moto, or shubo yeast starter, foaming away.

The moto, or shubo yeast starter, foaming away (Photo by Kenji Nachi)A yeast starter, or seed mash of sorts, is first created. This is done by mixing finished koji and plain steamed white rice from the above two steps, water and a concentration of pure yeast cells. Over the next two weeks, (typically) a concentration of yeast cells that can reach 100 million cells in one teaspoon is developed.

The Mash (Moromi)

After being moved to a larger tank, more rice, more koji and more water are added in three successive stages over four days, roughly doubling the size of the batch each time. This is the main mash, and as it ferments over the next 18 to 32 days, its temperature and other factors are measured and adjusted to create precisely the flavor profile being sought.

Pressing (joso)

Rice bagsWhen everything is just right (no easy decision!), the sake is pressed. Through one of several methods, the white lees (called kasu) and unfermented solids are pressed away, and the clear sake runs off. This is most often done by machine, although the older methods involving putting the moromi in canvas bags and squeezing the fresh sake out, or letting the sake drip out of the bags, are still used. (Photo at right: bags of moromi from which sake is being drip-pressed. Below Photo: a fune, used for pressing sake out of bags of moromi).

Filtration (roka)

After sitting for a few days to let more solids settle out, the sake is usually charcoal filtered to adjust flavor and color. This is done to different degrees at different breweries, and is goes a long way in dictating the style.

Pasteurization

Rice bagging itMost sake is then pasteurized once. This is done by heating it quickly by passing it through a pipe immersed in hot water. This process kills off bacteria and deactivates enzymes that would likely adverse flavor and color later on. Sake that is not pasteurized is called namazake, and maintains a certain freshness of flavor, although it must be kept refrigerated to protect it.

Aging

Finally, most sake is left to age about six months, rounding out the flavor, before shipping. Before shipping it is mixed with a bit of pure water to bring the near 20 percent alcohol down to 16 percent or so, and blended to ensure consistency. Also, it is usually pasteurized a second time at this stage. It is somewhat unfair to the sake-brewing craft and industry to reduce sake brewing down to the short explanation above, but excessive detail would soon go beyond the scope of this book. The basics are as explained here.

Changes Over the Years

Over the centuries, naturally there were many adjustments and changes to the sake brewing process. These arose to either make better sake, or to make sake more economically. Sometimes, advances in the economic forum also lead to improved sake quality.

One of the most important advances was the improvement in rice-polishing equipment. Originally, rice was stomped on in a vat to remove the husks. Later, water wheels and grinding stones were used. Today, there are great computer-controlled machines that will polish off the specified percentage of the outside of the grains, and do it in a specified amount of time (with longer being better). This minimizes damage from friction heat and cracked grains.

Another major advance was the use of ceramic-lined or stainless steel tanks, now the standard, over cedar tanks, which were used for hundreds of years. This has drastically improved the quality and purity of sake since the beginning of this century.

Then there is the pressing stage. Until the early 1900s, all sake was pressed by pouring the moromi into canvas bags which were then put into a large wooden box called a fune. The lid was then cranked down into the box, squeezing out the sake. Now, almost all sake is pressed with a huge, accordion-like machine that squeezes the moromi between balloon-like inflating panels, making disposal of the lees (called kasu) simple.

Almost all breweries will still press some of their best sake in the old way, using a fune. It does indeed make subtly noticeably better sake. But the accordion-like machine (called an Assaku-ki) is so much more efficient, and the fune so labor intensive, that the tradeoffs are only worth it for top-grade sake.

Most controversially, however, is the koji making equipment. It is truly amazing how the slightest differences in koji can affect the flavor of the final product. Traditionally, koji is all made by hand in wood-paneled rooms kept warm and humid. As this is such a labor-intensive step, many changes have come about, and a lot of them are rejected later. (It is interesting to note that almost all super premium sake like daiginjo is made using hand-made koji.)

There are now large machines that will perform part or all of the koji making process, doing the work of several individuals. There are countless manifestations of these, all attempting to imitate the skill and intuition of the human masters. Other changes include stainless steel instead of wood walls. The risk of the development of unwanted mold is reduced, but humidity is affected. In the end, there are countless arguments for and against these changes. Subtle changes in daily temperature and rice quality may not always be picked up by machines but, for example, sanitation can be greatly improved. Naturally, technological progress to some degree is necessary for the industry to survive.


SAKE CONFIDENTAL 

Interested in learning more about sake?

Check out my book “Sake Confidential” on Amazon.

Sake Confidential is the perfect FAQ for beginners, experts, and sommeliers.

Indexed for easy reference with suggested brands and label photos. Includes:

  • Sake Secrets: junmai vs. non-junmai, namazake, aging, dry vs. sweet, ginjo, warm vs. chilled, nigori, water, yeast, rice, regionality
  • How the Industry Really Works: pricing, contests, distribution, glassware, milling, food pairing
  • The Brewer’s Art Revealed: koji-making, brewers’ guilds, grading

 


SAKE INDUSTRY NEWS

If you are interested in staying up to date with what is happening within the Sake Industry and also information on more advanced Sake topics then Sake Industry News is just for you!

Sake Industry News is a paid subscription newsletter that is sent on the first and 15th of each month. Get news from the sake industry in Japan – including trends, business news, changes and developments, and technical information on sake types and production methods that are well beyond the basics – sent right to your inbox. Subscribe here today! 

Each issue will consist of four or five short stories culled from public news sources about the sake industry in Japan, as well as one or more slightly longer stories and observations by myself on trends, new developments, or changes within the sake industry in Japan.

 

Sake glossary

This page uses Japanese characters. To view, you may need to install the Japanese-language font pack for your browser.

Japanese
Reading
Definition

甘口
Amakuchi
Sweet in flavor

普通酒
Futsu-shu
Normal sake — anything without a special monicker

原酒
Genshu
Undiluted sake (most are slightly diluted)

吟醸酒
Ginjo-shu
Sake brewed with rice milled so that no more than 60% of the grain remains

火入れ
Hi-ire
Pasteurization

本醸造
Honjozo
Sake to which a small amount of distilled alcohol is added

地酒
Jizake
Sake from smaller kura — originally, sake from the boonies

純米酒
Junmai-shu
Sake brewed with only rice, water, and koji — no additives

辛口
Karakuchi
Dry in flavor

Kasu
The lees remaining after the sake has been pressed from the fermenting mixture

Koji
Rice onto which koji-jin has been propogated (see FAQ page, Q14)

麹菌
Koji-kin or Koji-kabi
Aspergillus Oryzae — a starch dissolving mold

Kura
A sake brewery — also known as a sakagura

蔵人
Kurabito
A brewery worker

蔵元
Kuramoto
Head of brewery

銘柄
Meigara
The ‘brand name’ of a sake

諸味
Moromi
Fermenting mixture of rice, water, koji, and yeast which yields sake

Moto
The yeast starter of a batch of sake — also, shubo

日本酒度
Nihonshu-do
The specific gravity of a sake — an indication of dryness or sweetness (see FAQ Page, Q16)

精米
Seimai
Rice polishing (milling)

精米歩合
Seimai-buai
The degree to which rice has been polished before brewing

清酒
Seishu
The official name (as far as taxes are concerned) for sake

焼酎
Shochu
A traditional Japanese distilled beverage

酒母
Shubo
The yeast starter for a batch of sake

杜氏
Toji
The head brewer at a kura

Special sake

There are many other types of sake that are less often seen than the main categories listed on the previous page. Some of these are industry marketing terms with little meaning or significance, others constitute vastly different types and styles of sake. Let us look at a few of them here below.

Nigori-zake

Nigori-zake (the s of sake becomes a z for the sake of pronounciation) is cloudy sake, sake that has not been pressed fully from the fermenting rice solids. Most people have seen it: the white, cloudy, usually opaque sake sometimes seen in shops and restaurants. That is nigori-zake, which simply means “cloudy sake.”The “clouds”are nothing more than unfermented rice solids deliberately left floating around inside.

There are several styles or forms that nigori-zake can take. Much nigori-zake is sweet and smooth and creamy in texture. Then there is the “o chunky you’l want to eat it with a fork”variety of nigori-zake.

Naturally, nigori-zake does not offer the subtlety and refinement of good premium sake. Although it can indeed be tasty and fun, the remaining lees and their flavor easily overpower any other fragrances or gentle nuances of flavor. Also, nigori-zake should always be served a bit chilled.

Yamahai-shikomi & Kimoto

Yamahai-shikomi and Kimoto sake are two variations on the brewing method in which the yeast starter is made in a special way that allows more funky yeast and bacteria to be pesent, often lending the sake a gamier, wilder flavor that can be fascinating.

That is the short answer. Here is the long answer.

From hundreds of years ago until the early 1900′s, it was thought that the rice and koji had to be mixed and crushed into a puree when creating the moto in order for them to work properly together and convert the starches to sugars. To achieve this, kurabito (brewery workers) would ram oar-like poles into the small vat for hours on end to make a smooth paste of the contents; exhausting work to say the least. This pole-ramming activity is known as yama-oroshi.

This yama-oroshi pole ramming is one of the most classic sake-brewing scenes around, and is commonly seen in paintings, and on old films at sake museums such as those at the larger breweries in Nada. It is during such activities that kurabito of old would sing traditional brewing songs, all but forgotten now, to keep them awake and active, and to help them count strokes.

Then, in 1909, Mr. Kinichiro Kagi at the National Institute for Brewing Studies discovered that all that hard work simply wasn’t necessary. If left alone, the enzymes in the koji would eventually dissolve all the rice in the developing moto anyway. No tiring pole-ramming was needed. The only catch was that you had to add a bit more water, and keep the temperature a bit warmer, a comparatively painless process. *Now you tell us!* rose the silent cry from countless exhausted brewery workers, past and present.

When it became known then that the rough part (yama-oroshi) could be ceased (hai-shi), yama-oroshi hai-shi, shortened to simply yamahai, was born.

But technology wasn’t finished poking fun at tradition. Ah, no, there was more mockery in store. In 1911 it was discovered that by adding a bit of lactic acid to the moto at the beginning, the whole thing could be accomplished in about half the time. Lactic acid is a product of the yeast life cycle, and when present in sufficient amounts, it prevents wild yeast and unwanted bacteria from proliferating and adversely affecting the flavor.

When the yamahai process is used, since the lactic acid comes into existence more slowly, a bit of funky bacteria and even wild yeast cells inevitably make it into the moto as it develops. This gives rise to gamier, more unabashed flavor profile in the end.

Yamahai moto takes about a month to develop, and can be nerve wracking as those stray bacteria and wild yeast cells can ruin a whole batch if they are not kept in check to some degree. Sanitation is paramount, and pains must be taken to keep the developing moto covered and protected.

Adding lactic acid at the beginning speeds the process up, allowing the moto to be ready for use in about two weeks. It also protects it from the start, putting everyone at ease.

This alter-ego of yamahai, in which a bit of lactic acid is added in the beginning, is known as sokujo moto, or *fast-developing* moto. Due to a characteristic resistance to new-fangled technology, it took about ten years for sokujo-moto to gain acceptance on an industry-wide basis. However, most sake today is created using sokujo moto method, as it is faster and easier and leads to a cleaner flavor. In a sense, yamahai is for those with more eclectic tastes.

Flavor-wise, what are the differences? Yamahai has a higher sweetness and acidity, with richer, deeper, significantly more pronounced flavors. A nice descriptive word for most yamahai is *gamy*. Sokujo-moto (i.e. most sake on the market) is comparatively milder and cleaner in flavor. However, there is oodles of overlap; yamahai sake can occasionally be clean and refined, and sokujo-moto sake can (once in a while) be wild and gamy. So in the end, extreme cases notwithstanding, it’s not a whole lot to get worked up about.

Many, many kura (breweries) make yamahai or kimoto sake, but not all. Some specialize in it even. Due to the strange yeastfellows involved, yamahai moto must be prepared in a separate room from the rest of the moto preparation.

The *Sake to Look For* section below lists several yamahai-shikomi sake to look for and taste. (The word shikomi here simply refers to creating a tank of sake.) Certainly a worthwhile experience.

So, what you need to take away from this newsletter, the one-liner executive summary so to speak, is this: for yamahai sake, the yeast starter was created in a slow and laborious way that allowed more wild yeasts and bacteria to become a part of the brew. This usually leads to a richer, tangier flavor. That should demystify things a bit. Anything else you need to know, your palate will tell you.

Kimoto

Beyond the standard method (sokujo moto) and the yamahai-shikomi method discussed above, there are a few other ways of creating this yeast starter.

One such method is known as kimoto. As mentioned above, until about 1920, all sake was made by mixing rice, koji, and water to a puree in order to help the yeast cells reproduce faster. This was the original method, and since originally this was the only method there was, there was no name to differentiate it from other methods. Later, they needed to give it a name, and this name was Kimoto.

Kimoto, then, is the original method. Indeed, even today, brewers creating sake made using a kimoto yeast starter will stand around a small tub and mix, mix, mix in a rhythmical, robotic action to mash up the rice, koji and yeast to a paste-like consistency. Monotonous and tiring work to be sure, but aren’t all traditional methods?

This activity, by the way, helps speed up the natural production of lactic acid in the moto. Lactic acid will then protect the developing moto from stray bacteria that would contribute to strange flavors or even spoil the sake.

A kimoto yeast starter takes a bit longer than yamahai to create, but ironically, the sake that results from these two methods is similar in flavor profile. Like sake brewed with yamahai moto, sake brewed with a kimoto moto has a higher sweetness and acidity, with richer, deeper, significantly more pronounced flavors. Bitterness in the recesses is not uncommon. As with all sake brewing methods, though, the moto used is only one factor. In fact, the intention and skill of the brewer will dictate more about the final product than how the yeast starter was created.

As kimoto can exhibit these rougher, more pronounced flavors, one does not usually see this type of brewing method used with very high grade sake. Kimoto (and yamahai as well) is more commonly seen in perhaps junmai-shu grade sake, and less so in ginjo or daiginjo sake, simply because of the usually delicate nature of ginjo and daiginjo sake. Such refined flavor profiles might be overpowered by the slightly harsher facets resulting from kimoto or yamahai.

But there are exceptions, and wonderful exceptions at that. Take Daishichi, from Fukushima, for example. Daishichi is a wonderful brewery that is not afraid to take technical risks. One of these risks was to be the first brewery to brew a ginjo-shu (and then a daiginjo-shu) from a kimoto yeast starter. Although now there are many other premium kimoto sake, it is far from being a common practice in ginjo-shu brewing.

Note, as alluded to above, that whether or not a sake is kimoto, yamahai, or sokujo moto is independent of its grade. There are kimoto and yamahai sake that are of all grades: futsuu-shu, junmai-shu, honjo-zo, and all forms of ginjo-shu (straight ginjo, junmai ginjo, straight daiginjo, and junmai daiginjo). They are but methods of creating the yeast starter.

Nama-zake and its variations

Although more easily found within Japan than without, nama-zake is one of the most easily enjoyable types of sake on the market.

In short, nama-zake is unpasteurized sake. Almost all sake (anything not labeled nama; probably 99% of all sake on the market) has been pasteurized twice; once just after brewing, and once again after a maturation period or before shipping. This is done by either running the sake through a pipe submerged in hot water (about 65C is the norm), or submerging already bottled sake in same.

Pasteurization is done to deactivate heat-sensitive enzymes and microorganisms left over from the koji and yeast cells, thus ensuring they will not kick in at higher temperatures (room temperature is enough to activate some of these) and send the sake flavors out of kilter.

On the other hand, sake that is not pasteurized – namazake – has a much fresher, livelier and zingier touch to the flavor, with usually a much more active aromatic aspect. Although care and refrigeration are needed to keep it fresh, and although the sake overall is much less stable, it often can be worth the hassle and effort.

Note, however, that there are several variations on leaving sake unpasteurized, and the handful of terms used to refer to these can be a tad confusing. In an attempt to eschew obfuscation, here is a lexicon of all things nama.

As mentioned above, most sake is pasteurized twice. When the need to differentiate arises, such fully pasteurized sake is referred to as hi-ire, or “put in the fire.”

Full-fledged nama-zake, on the other hand, can also be referred to as nama-nama, or hon-nama; these are identical terms that indicate *totally* unpasteurized sake. Again, this would be used most often in comparisons to other types of nama.

One such other type would be nama-chozo. Chozo means store, although in this case it really refers to the typically six-month maturation period, and so nama-chozo is sake that has been “chozo-ed” in its unpasteurized form, and pasteurized one time only after maturation (usually a six month period) or just before shipping.

Then there is the opposite of this, nama-zume. This is sake that has been pasteurized once before storage, but *not* pasteurized before bottling (zume comes from tsumeru, meaning “to bottle.”). When this is traditionally released in the fall, just as the weather begins to cool down, it can also be known as hiya-oroshi. Got all that?

But the difference between these two is very subtle and a bit gimmicky. Nama-chozo and nama-zume have simply both been pasteurized once only and not twice. This gives the sake stability and yet allows it to retain some of the nature of nama-zake. In theory, anyway. More often than not totally unpasteurized sake is what you want to drink.

For all its user-friendliness, however, nama-zake is not unequivocally better than pasteurized sake. On the contrary, often that lively zing imparted by omitting pasteurization can overpower more subtle aspects of the sake. All you can taste is its nama-ness, so to speak.

Yet, if meticulous care is taken by the brewer in terms of storage temperature and preventing oxidation, the lissome freshness is more often than not an enhancement. Just be aware that there are various opinions out there.

Fortunately, in the end, all you really need to remember is that nama-zake is *usually* fresher, livelier and more stimulatingly enjoyable than pasteurized sake. That’s the raw truth about nama.

Nama-zake is great for hanami for several reasons. One reason is – like the beautiful, ephemeral sakura – nama-zake is short lived. Nama-zake must be kept quite cold, or there is a very high possibility it will undergo drastic changes.

When nama-zake goes bad, it becomes sweet and yeasty and quite funky in an unpleasant way, a condition known as hi-ochi. A white muck that floats suspended in the bottle (like lava in those old lava lamps) usually appears in bad nama-zake; that is your visual clue to steer clear.) Don’t confuse this with nigori-zake, however, which is deliberately left cloudy with the remains of rice.)

Although available all year round to some degree, nama-zake is most commonly found in the spring, just when the traditional brewing season ends. Nama-zake and spring seem to go well as they share youth and newness on many levels.

Note, too, that whether or not a sake is pasteurized is independent of its grade. You can find nama-zake in almost all grades of sake. Whether or not it has been pasteurized does not inherently affect its grade, be in table sake, junmai-shu, ginjo or daiginjo. It is simply but one more dimension of potential enjoyment.

For a glossary of all things sake, click here.


SAKE CONFIDENTAL 

Interested in learning more about sake?

Check out my book “Sake Confidential” on Amazon.

Sake Confidential is the perfect FAQ for beginners, experts, and sommeliers.

Indexed for easy reference with suggested brands and label photos. Includes:

  • Sake Secrets: junmai vs. non-junmai, namazake, aging, dry vs. sweet, ginjo, warm vs. chilled, nigori, water, yeast, rice, regionality
  • How the Industry Really Works: pricing, contests, distribution, glassware, milling, food pairing
  • The Brewer’s Art Revealed: koji-making, brewers’ guilds, grading

 


SAKE INDUSTRY NEWS

If you are interested in staying up to date with what is happening within the Sake Industry and also information on more advanced Sake topics then Sake Industry News is just for you!

Sake Industry News is a paid subscription newsletter that is sent on the first and 15th of each month. Get news from the sake industry in Japan – including trends, business news, changes and developments, and technical information on sake types and production methods that are well beyond the basics – sent right to your inbox. Subscribe here today! 

Each issue will consist of four or five short stories culled from public news sources about the sake industry in Japan, as well as one or more slightly longer stories and observations by myself on trends, new developments, or changes within the sake industry in Japan.