Kuramoto, Toji and Kurabito

Men at Work at Rihaku Brewery

Sake is produced by the kuramoto (brewery owner), the toji (head sake brewer), and the kurabito (brewery workers). In economic terms, creating the product calls for land, finances and raw materials. The kuramoto is responsible for procuring these, while the toji is responsible for the actual brewing and the hiring and management of the kurabito. Moreover, since sake is brewed only in the winter, the toji and kurabito are essentially “contract” workers.

The Toji System

The toji, or head brewer, is generally associated with one ryuha, or “school” of brewing. These toji ryuha are tied closely to various regions throughout Japan, and there are perhaps 25 schools of toji in existence now. Each school has its own style, to be sure, and that style is evident in the sake they brew, but the differences between various schools of toji is not what it was long ago. Long ago, it was all quite secretive, and the methods employed and refined by one group were never disclosed to other groups. But, over the past several decades, toji and brewers from all over the country readily share information in their shared desire to make better sake.

In part, the toji system came about with a little help from the government. In 1798 the Shogunate formalized an economic system based on rice. In order to establish tight control, the government decreed that no sake brewing was permitted before the Autumn Equinox. Although not much could be done in the warmer seasons anyway, sake brewers now had to go into the boonies to get the farmers who found themselves with too much free time in the winter.

Toji for the most part are, in the off-season, farmers and fishermen. During the spring, summer and fall, they grow rice or work on fishing boats in their home regions. When the fall harvest is over, or the fishing season ends, there is no longer any work in their villages. This is the season when they head off to sake breweries to work. In Japanese, this traveling for seasonal employment is called “dekasegi.”

The various toji schools are usually centered in the snowy regions of Japan, like the northern Tohoku region and Hokuriku region. Although the dekasegi system of travelling far from home for seasonal work was never limited to the sake brewing industry, the pay and status of sake laborers was always relatively higher than other seasonal labor jobs. In general, the competition for jobs in the sake industry has thus been more intense than in other industries employing dekasegi laborers. For more on toji schools, click here.

Learning the Trade

Doi fermentation tank

A toji basically learns his skill through on-the-job training. There are no texts, and the only way to learn is by watching. In the old days, no one taught anyone else by direct instruction; one was expected to watch and learn. This allowed one to develop a very deeply embedded and strong sense about what to do in each situation. As a result, if you gathered together 100 toji, you would likely find 100 different brewing styles. Indeed, the Japanese saying Sakaya Banryu was coined to express this wide divergence in toji styles.

In modern times, however, this system of learning only by watching has changed somewhat. Today, the government and toji unions encourage those wanting to become toji to formally study fermentation and chemistry.

A Typical Toji Work Day

What precisely does a toji do? Let’s look at a typical day during the high season of sake brewing. The toji, along with the other brewing craftsmen (kurabito), gets up about five in the morning. The first thing to do is to check on the state of the koji. Koji development is an extremely important step in the brewing process, in which the starch in the rice is converted into sugars. Koji is created by propagating koji mold spores (called aspergillus oryzae in English) onto rice. To do this properly, the koji must be mixed regularly and have its temperature checked constantly. This is the first order of business in the early morning.

Next, toji check the status of the various tanks of fermenting sake mash. This mash, called moromi in Japanese, is a mixture of koji, rice, water, and yeast. The mash must undergo fermentation to yield alcohol, and the typical fermentation period lasts two to three weeks. However, premium ginjo-shu sake takes longer (usually one month) to ferment.

During the fermentation period, the toji will check daily the status of each moromi tank. This often means making a chemical analysis of the moromi to determine if various compounds are sufficiently present. But the toji does not rely purely on chemical analysis. He relies on his experience and eyes to judge the condition of the mash. He looks at the foam on the surface of the moromi, how much carbon dioxide is emanating from it, the amount and appearance of the foam, and even the sound of the foam as it churns and bubbles pop. The toji call this “talking to the moromi.” It ‘s like judging a baby’s health by listening to the baby’s crying. Then, based on this information, adjustments are made.

For example, if the yeast is particularly active and the fermentation is proceeding too quickly, he may cool the tank down a bit to slow the progress of the fermenting moromi. Just how many degrees it needs to be chilled would be a decision based on the toji’s experience. Before there were any major technological developments, sake was brewed exclusively by these kinds of methods, but even today in the age of chemical analysis and modern technology, these skills are just as important as the analysis and modern equipment.

After checking on the moromi and koji, the toji eat breakfast. Following that, preparations are made for the sake that will be brewed that day. This includes washing rice, steaming large amounts of rice, cooling the rice after steaming, adding it to the correct fermenting tanks, and making koji.

There are usually several types of sake being brewed at any one time, each calling for different types of sake rice. Toji must be very careful to keep their rices separate. Also, sake that has completed its fermentation period and is ready will be pressed to separate the clear sake from the remaining rice solids to give what is called genshu, or pure undiluted sake. This process can take all day and last into the evening.

After dinner, they take a break prior to the late-evening check and mixing of the koji. They go to sleep about ten o’clock, with the same work awaiting them the next morning.

Today, scientific theories and systematic testing provide viable explanations for the fermentation process, and the toji craft has lost some of its “magic and mystery.” Yet, we must still admire the toji, for they are dealing daily with a fermentation process that involves microorganisms too small to be seen by the naked eye. Some of these microscopic organisms are floating around in the air, and although some are beneficial to sake production, others are detrimental. Just how to balance the effects of these organisms is something the toji does not with his eyes, but based on his experience, his sense, and his intuition. And in the end a great toji creates a great work of art that science alone could never achieve through automation. Making sake is indeed deep and complicated work. It may seem that a toji’s work is one of simple repetition, but each day he works with nature, not against it, to seemingly control organisms he cannot see, based on what could be called “the eyes of his heart.”

Decline in Number of Toji

Along with a general decline in the number of sake breweries in Japan, the number of toji as well is declining owing to advanced age, the lack of successors, and the utilization of mass-production techniques. The average toji age is 65. Successors are hard to find, as more and more Japanese youth prefer the excitement and opportunites of the big cities to life in small farming and fishing villages. The toji take pride in their work, but they also know it is hard work on a seasonal basis and thus in general they refrain from forcing their children to follow in their footsteps.The number of toji is expected to decline rapidly in the years ahead, but some kuramoto are working to remedy this situation. Some are moving away from “contracted” seasonal labor and offering more permanent employment opportunities. Others are attempting to automate certain operations, like bottle transport, which do not require a “handmade” touch. Some are introducing computers and new technologies to “simulate” — via fuzzy logic — the experience and intuition of the toji. Although many smaller brewers are experimenting with ways to combine automation technologies with centuries-old hand-made brewing techniques, their objectives remain quite different from the large-scale mass producers of sake. The objective of the small brewer is not to produce greater volume, but rather to continue producing unique “hand-made” sake with technologies and employment practices that ensure its future survival.

Famous Toji Schools

There are about 25 toji ryuha throughout Japan. The largest three are by far Nanbu toji from Iwate, Echigo toji from Niigata, and Tajima toji from Hyogo. Their names come from the old geographical names for their respective regions. As might be expected, Nanbu toji were centered around Tohoku, Echigo toji near Niigata and Kanto, and Tajima toji in Nada and Fushimi. Other examples include Akitsu toji from Hiroshima, Yamanouchi toji from Akita, and Tanba toji, also from Hyogo.

Although consumer demand has often come to dictate style more than in the past, some semblance of regional distinction remains. Sake made by Echigo toji is quite often “tanrei karakuchi,” or dry and clean. The soft and mellow sake of Nada and Kyoto is indicative of that made by Tajima toji, and Nanbu toji sake is generally simple, straightforward, but well pronounced; a personal favorite as far as styles go. Others recommendable for their distinction and memorability include the sake of Hiroshima’s Akitsu toji, and that of the Izumo toji of Shimane, albeit a bit harder to find.

As the number of kura (sake breweries) has drastically declined, naturally so has the number of toji in most ryuha. The number of Echigo toji has dropped to one-third what it was at the beginning of the Showa era, and the number of Tajima toji, the largest at the beginning of the Showa era, has dropped to one-tenth the number of members. Only the Nanbu toji have retained strength in the ranks, having maintained the same number of members for the past 40 years or so. This may be due to the training and strict qualifications testing provided. Amongst prize-winning sake, the Nanbu toji names are appearing with increasing frequency.

With the convenience of modern transportation systems, the toji are venturing farther and farther from home. They very often travel together with the same crew of kurabito (workers). For example, Nanbu toji and their merry bands can be found as far south as Kansai. They have come to naturally fill the voids left by the decreasing number of Echigo toji.

As interest increases in the factors that go into brewing good sake, the name of the toji, and where he or she is from, is often listed on the label. Paying attention to toji helps develop a sense for the particular styles and distinctions of the various regions.

Koji is one of the crucial ingredients in sake brewing

Just what is Koji?

Koji being cultivated in small trays

Koji is steamed rice that has had koji-kin, or koji mold spores, cultivated onto it. (See photo at right, which is a grain of rice cultivated with koji mold.) This magical mold, for which the official scientific name is Aspergillus Oryzae, creates several enzymes as it propagates, and these are what break the starches in rice into sugars that can be fermented by the yeast cells, which then give off carbon dioxide and alcohol. Without koji, there is no sake. For what it is worth, sake is not the only beverage in the world using koji. There are a couple of others throughout Asia. But the brewing methodologies are vastly different.

A quick comparison between the production methods of sake versus other alcoholic beverages may prove useful. Wine is fermented from grapes, which already contain sugar (glucose, to be chemically correct). This is what yeast cells need for food. There are other kinds of sugars, but they cannot be metabolized by yeast. So in winemaking, yeast is added to a liquid already containing sugar.

Beer and other beverages made from malted barley begin not with sugars, but with starches, which are molecularly monstrous. Here, brewers employ enzymes brought out in the barley malting process (where the barley is moistened and warmed, i.e. the sprouting process begun, albeit artificially) to break down the starches into sugars. These enzymes, which activate within very specific temperature ranges, chop the starch chains into much smaller sugar molecules. Some will be glucose and feed the yeast, some will be chemically different sugars and add to flavor.

Grain of rice on which koji is propagating

Back to sake. Sake is brewed from white rice stripped of its husk. There can be no malting, so the starch-chopping enzymes must come from somewhere else. Enter the cooperative koji. The dark-green spores, sprinkled onto steamed rice, graciously provide the necessary enzymes for saccharification. There are many enzymes involved in this process. Some act to create fermentable sugar (glucose), others act more to create sugars that will not ferment but will instead affect texture and flavor in a sake.

Koji production (known as seigiku) is at the very heart of the sake-brewing process. The leverage it holds over the final product is immense. From a good beginning all things flow naturally, and so it is with koji. Koji is cultivated in a special room in the kura (brewery) called the koji muro. When ready, it is mixed with more steamed rice. Initially, yeast and water are added here. In later stages of a batch, koji is transferred into the large tank within which the sake-to-be is fermenting away. It continues to do its sugar -making work, while imparting the effects of its own sensitive production, until fermentation is finished.

As an example of how sensitive yet powerful koji can be, I once had sake presented by the brewer with an apology: “Look, we just rebuilt our koji muro last year. The wood used for the walls was not quite as ready as we thought, and you can unfortunately taste the cedar wood in the sake.” Sure enough, delicious though the sake was, the faint essence of cedar was evident in the flavor and fragrance.

In general, the koji-making process takes 40 to 45 hours. During this time, the developing koji is checked and mixed constantly to ensure proper temperature and moisture, as well as an even distribution of both. As the koji mold works its way into the center of the steamed rice grains, heat is generated. Different temperatures are ideal at different stages of the process. Not only that, but these ideals will change depending on the sought-after flavor profile. The type of rice, pH and mineral content of the water, and a myriad of other things affect the way koji is made as well. These variables compound to create a process that is more art and intuition than science.

When koji is ready for use, it looks like rice with a small amount of white frosting on each grain. The smell and taste are slightly sweet, as might be expected. There is a characteristic light chestnut-like aroma that wafts wonderfully up.

In response to the demands of the times, there are several manifestations of automatic koji-making machines. Some of these are fully automatic; insert ingredients here, stand back for 42 hours, here’s your kooji. Others allow much more human intervention, some being only closed-loop temperature controlled tables. Even robotic-finger kooji mixers are out there. All of these work well; some better than others. On the quality-versus-labor-saved curve, these score very high indeed. But it is interesting to note that almost every kura in the country makes kooji for their best sake by hand.

SAKE CONFIDENTAL 

Interested in learning more about sake?

Check out my book “Sake Confidential” on Amazon.

Sake Confidential is the perfect FAQ for beginners, experts, and sommeliers.

Indexed for easy reference with suggested brands and label photos. Includes:

• Sake Secrets: junmai vs. non-junmai, namazake, aging, dry vs. sweet, ginjo, warm vs. chilled, nigori, water, yeast, rice, regionality
• How the Industry Really Works: pricing, contests, distribution, glassware, milling, food pairing
• The Brewer’s Art Revealed: koji-making, brewers’ guilds, grading

SAKE INDUSTRY NEWS

If you are interested in staying up to date with what is happening within the Sake Industry and also information on more advanced Sake topics then Sake Industry News is just for you!

Sake Industry News is a paid subscription newsletter that is sent on the first and 15th of each month. Get news from the sake industry in Japan – including trends, business news, changes and developments, and technical information on sake types and production methods that are well beyond the basics – sent right to your inbox. Subscribe here today! 

Each issue will consist of four or five short stories culled from public news sources about the sake industry in Japan, as well as one or more slightly longer stories and observations by myself on trends, new developments, or changes within the sake industry in Japan.

Sake is, at first glance, a simple creation. The main ingredients are water, rice, koji, and yeast. Pristine and uncomplicated. But things get a bit more involved just beneath the surface. Water is an appropriate analogy of the apparently simple yet inherently complex nature of sake brewing.

The popularity of bottled and spring water over the last few years attests to the difficulty of maintaining a pure water supply. A quick discerning sniff of the ordinary tap water of many cities can crinkle the nose of even the most insensitive of dullards, especially when compared with fresh spring or well water.Imagine if the delicate flavor components of sake were to be made to compete with that onslaught.

The Role of Water

Sake in its completed form is about 80% pure water. Before it arrives at that final manifestation, however, it is exposed to oceanic amounts of water in each step of the brewing process.The rice is washed, rinsed, and soaked before it ever gets close to the steaming process. Water is then added to the fermenting moromi in the tanks at each of the (typically) three “shikomi,” or additions of rice, water and koji. Finally, a little water is almost always added at the end to bring the alcohol down from the naturally occurring twenty percent or so to around sixteen percent.

All together, the amount of water that goes into a bottle of sake adds up to be more than 30 times the weight of the rice used. It deserves a bit of attention.

Sake Watering Holes

Water and Earl Most of the traditional sake brewing locations, like Nada (Kobe), Fushimi (Kyoto), Saijo (Hiroshima) and Aizu-Wakamatsu (Fukushima) came into existence partly due to the abundant supply of good water in the region. Chemical analysis was not exactly in its heyday in the 1700′s, but the final product told the story, and everyone rushed to set up shop where success had been proven.

The most famous example of this is the water that rushes down from Mt. Rokko in Hyogo Prefecture into Nishinomiya and Nada. Known as “Miyamizu,” sake made using this water was immensely popular among the elite. This led to the region having more breweries and producing more sake than any other place in Japan, a statistic which still holds true today.

Eventually science caught up to intuition and experience and found ways to determine what exactly makes “good water” for sake brewing, as well as what does not. The results of extensive research by sake-brewing research centers, which exist in almost every prefecture, have now become common knowledge to brewers.

What’s Good, What’s Bad

There are a number of elements whose presence is indispensable, without which certain steps of the brewing process will not proceed smoothly. There are also several things that are only detrimental, and either impede the process or adversely effect the sake in other ways.

The Bad Guys

The baddest hombre of the bunch is iron. Iron will darken the color of sake and adversely affect its taste and fragrance. This happens because it chemically attaches to the center of a normally colorless compound attached to an amino acid produced while the koji mold is being made. Also, as sake ages, the residual sugars react with amino acids present to change the flavor and smell, and the presence of iron hastens this reaction.

Manganese plays a different but equally despicable role. When sake is exposed to light, in particular ultraviolet light, manganese promotes a chemical reaction that will discolor and de-luster the appearance of a sake. In direct sunlight, this change can be seen in less than three hours. Although there are others, these are the main two culprits in water that would negate candidacy for sake brewing.

The Good Guys

Then there are the good guys; elements and compounds whose presence we cannot do without. In particular, potassium, magnesium and phosphoric acid are necessary to aid the propagation of the yeast in the “shubo” (yeast starter), as well as in the proper development of good “koji”. If these are not present in sufficient amounts the yeast cells will not multiply as well or as quickly, throwing off the timing off of the entire fermentation so that it can not be properly controlled.

One of the problems here is that potassium is water soluble, and can be washed away during the rice washing and soaking processes if the kurabito (or brewery workers) are not careful. A similar hassle exists with phosphoric acid, as it is generally attached to fat and protein molecules. It must be removed from these, and the bonds are broken by enzymes donated by the kind koji, thereby freeing it up to be used by the yeast. This shows how tightly the various aspects of the brewing process are intertwined.

To sum up, potassium, magnesium, and phosphoric acid help vigorous yeast propagation and also assist in koji development. Iron and manganese, on the other
hand, adversely affect the flavor, aroma, and color of a sake in a relatively short amount of time.

Where Do Brewers Get Their Water?

Leaving the chemical chicanery behind, where do kura get their water? More of it comes from wells than any other source. The stable temperature of deep well water gives it consistency,although the individual qualities of a well vary with depth and the land.

Rivers flowing from the mountains as well as lakes and other bodies of water are also used, but the less-than-positive changes in the environment over the last century or so have rendered many of these useless. Which is not to say this practice is completely obsolete. Many kura brag about their region’s “meisui” (famous water), insisting that it is one of the secrets of their fine brew.

Naturally, water can be chemically altered and synthetically produced to specifications, so many kura take that route. Still others use local tap water, and filter it or alter it as is necessary to fit their needs.

As a general classification, water for brewing is often referred to as “kosui” (hard water)or “nansui” (soft water), with several monikers that reside somewhere between those two extremes. Although both kinds of water have the potential to make wonderful sake,the brewing methods are subtly different for each. The famous Miyamizu of Kobe is kosui, whereas nearby Fushimi water in Kyoto is nansui. Both Hiroshima and Fukushima have, in general, soft water.

Among sake brewers, water is more often referred to as “tsuyoi mizu” (strong water)and “yowai mizu” (weak water). This refers to how well the water promotes fermentation.And just because the water is “weak” does not by any stretch mean it is not suitable for brewing; it just indicates that the timing of certain steps will be different. Although the correlation is not completely direct, hard water is generally strong water.

Lately, in the barrage of information that has come to appear on sake labels, the type of water used in brewing is sometimes listed.

Five crucial elements are involved in brewing sake — water, rice, technical skill, yeast, and land / weather. More than anything else, sake is a result of a brewing process that uses rice and lots of water.

In fact, water comprises as much as 80% of the final product, so fine water and fine rice are natural prerequisites if one hopes to brew great sake. But beyond that, the technical skill needed to pull this all off lies with the toji (head brewers), the type of yeast they use, and the limitations entailed by local land and weather conditions. Please visit the links shown above for a detailed review of the crucial ingredients.

Quick overview

Rice is washed and steam-cooked. This is then mixed with yeast and koji (rice cultivated with a mold known technically as aspergillus oryzae). The whole mix is then allowed to ferment, with more rice, koji, and water added in three batches over four days. This fermentation, which occurs in a large tank, is called shikomi. The quality of the rice, the degree to which the koji mold has propagated, temperature variations, and other factors are different for each shikomi. This mash is allowed to sit from 18 to 32 days, after which it is pressed, filtered and blended. This would be enough to get you through most conversations. But let us look at the main steps and processes a bit more closely.

Rice Milling

Note the white opaque starch packet in the center of many of the grains.

After proper sake rice (in the case of premium sake, anyway) has been secured, it is milled, or polished, to prepare it for brewing good sake. This is not as simple as it might sound, since it must be done gently so as to not generate too much heat (which adversely affects water absorption) or not crack the rice kernels (which is not good for the fermentation process). In the photo on left, the rice in top left corner is unmilled, the rice next to it has only 70% of kernel remaining, while the rice at bottom has been milled so only 35% remains. The photo at top right (with red background) shows rice ground to 50%. The amount of milling greatly influences the taste. For more on this topic, please visit Types of Sake page.

Washing and Soaking

Next, the white powder (called nuka) left on the rice after polishing is washed away, as this makes a significant difference in the final quality of the steamed rice. (It also affects the flavor of table rice; try washing your rice very thoroughly and notice the difference in consistency and flavor.) Following that, it is soaked to attain a certain water content deemed optimum for steaming that particular rice. The degree to which the rice has been milled in the previous step determines what its pre-steaming water content should be. The more a rice has been polished, the faster it absorbs water and the shorter the soaking time. Often it is done for as little as a stopwatch-measured minute, sometimes it is done overnight.

Steaming

Next the rice is steamed. Note this is different from the way table rice is prepared. It is not mixed with water and brought to a boil; rather, steam is brought up through the bottom of the steaming vat (traditionally called a koshiki) to work its way through the rice. This gives a firmer consistency and slightly harder outside surface and softer center. Generally, a batch of steamed rice is divided up, with some going to have koji mold sprinkled over it, and some going directly to the fermentation vat. (Photo at left: rice steaming in koshiki, or vat).

Koji Making (Seigiku)

This is the heart of the entire brewing process, really, and could have several chapters, if not books, written about it. Summarizing, k(LEFT) Koji being cultivated in small trays (Right) A grain of rice cultavated with koji mold (photos by Kenji Nachi)oji mold in the form of a dark, fine powder is sprinkled on steamed rice that has been cooled. It is then taken to a special room within which a higher than average humidity and temperature are maintained. Over the next 36 to 45 hours, the developing koji is checked, mixed and re-arranged constantly. The final product looks like rice grains with a slight frosting on them, and smells faintly of sweet chestnuts. Koji is used at least four times throughout the process, and is always made fresh and used immediately. Therefore, any one batch goes through the “heart of the process” at least four times. (Photo: Koji being cultivated in small trays, and a grain of rice cultavated with koji mold).

The yeast starter (shubo or moto)

Photo at right: the moto, or shubo yeast starter, foaming away.

The moto, or shubo yeast starter, foaming away (Photo by Kenji Nachi)A yeast starter, or seed mash of sorts, is first created. This is done by mixing finished koji and plain steamed white rice from the above two steps, water and a concentration of pure yeast cells. Over the next two weeks, (typically) a concentration of yeast cells that can reach 100 million cells in one teaspoon is developed.

The Mash (Moromi)

After being moved to a larger tank, more rice, more koji and more water are added in three successive stages over four days, roughly doubling the size of the batch each time. This is the main mash, and as it ferments over the next 18 to 32 days, its temperature and other factors are measured and adjusted to create precisely the flavor profile being sought.

Pressing (joso)

When everything is just right (no easy decision!), the sake is pressed. Through one of several methods, the white lees (called kasu) and unfermented solids are pressed away, and the clear sake runs off. This is most often done by machine, although the older methods involving putting the moromi in canvas bags and squeezing the fresh sake out, or letting the sake drip out of the bags, are still used. (Photo at right: bags of moromi from which sake is being drip-pressed. Below Photo: a fune, used for pressing sake out of bags of moromi).

Filtration (roka)

After sitting for a few days to let more solids settle out, the sake is usually charcoal filtered to adjust flavor and color. This is done to different degrees at different breweries, and is goes a long way in dictating the style.

Pasteurization

Most sake is then pasteurized once. This is done by heating it quickly by passing it through a pipe immersed in hot water. This process kills off bacteria and deactivates enzymes that would likely adverse flavor and color later on. Sake that is not pasteurized is called namazake, and maintains a certain freshness of flavor, although it must be kept refrigerated to protect it.

Aging

Finally, most sake is left to age about six months, rounding out the flavor, before shipping. Before shipping it is mixed with a bit of pure water to bring the near 20 percent alcohol down to 16 percent or so, and blended to ensure consistency. Also, it is usually pasteurized a second time at this stage. It is somewhat unfair to the sake-brewing craft and industry to reduce sake brewing down to the short explanation above, but excessive detail would soon go beyond the scope of this book. The basics are as explained here.

Changes Over the Years

Over the centuries, naturally there were many adjustments and changes to the sake brewing process. These arose to either make better sake, or to make sake more economically. Sometimes, advances in the economic forum also lead to improved sake quality.

One of the most important advances was the improvement in rice-polishing equipment. Originally, rice was stomped on in a vat to remove the husks. Later, water wheels and grinding stones were used. Today, there are great computer-controlled machines that will polish off the specified percentage of the outside of the grains, and do it in a specified amount of time (with longer being better). This minimizes damage from friction heat and cracked grains.

Another major advance was the use of ceramic-lined or stainless steel tanks, now the standard, over cedar tanks, which were used for hundreds of years. This has drastically improved the quality and purity of sake since the beginning of this century.

Then there is the pressing stage. Until the early 1900s, all sake was pressed by pouring the moromi into canvas bags which were then put into a large wooden box called a fune. The lid was then cranked down into the box, squeezing out the sake. Now, almost all sake is pressed with a huge, accordion-like machine that squeezes the moromi between balloon-like inflating panels, making disposal of the lees (called kasu) simple.

Almost all breweries will still press some of their best sake in the old way, using a fune. It does indeed make subtly noticeably better sake. But the accordion-like machine (called an Assaku-ki) is so much more efficient, and the fune so labor intensive, that the tradeoffs are only worth it for top-grade sake.

Most controversially, however, is the koji making equipment. It is truly amazing how the slightest differences in koji can affect the flavor of the final product. Traditionally, koji is all made by hand in wood-paneled rooms kept warm and humid. As this is such a labor-intensive step, many changes have come about, and a lot of them are rejected later. (It is interesting to note that almost all super premium sake like daiginjo is made using hand-made koji.)

There are now large machines that will perform part or all of the koji making process, doing the work of several individuals. There are countless manifestations of these, all attempting to imitate the skill and intuition of the human masters. Other changes include stainless steel instead of wood walls. The risk of the development of unwanted mold is reduced, but humidity is affected. In the end, there are countless arguments for and against these changes. Subtle changes in daily temperature and rice quality may not always be picked up by machines but, for example, sanitation can be greatly improved. Naturally, technological progress to some degree is necessary for the industry to survive.

SAKE CONFIDENTAL 

Interested in learning more about sake?

Check out my book “Sake Confidential” on Amazon.

Sake Confidential is the perfect FAQ for beginners, experts, and sommeliers.

Indexed for easy reference with suggested brands and label photos. Includes:

• Sake Secrets: junmai vs. non-junmai, namazake, aging, dry vs. sweet, ginjo, warm vs. chilled, nigori, water, yeast, rice, regionality
• How the Industry Really Works: pricing, contests, distribution, glassware, milling, food pairing
• The Brewer’s Art Revealed: koji-making, brewers’ guilds, grading

SAKE INDUSTRY NEWS

If you are interested in staying up to date with what is happening within the Sake Industry and also information on more advanced Sake topics then Sake Industry News is just for you!

Sake Industry News is a paid subscription newsletter that is sent on the first and 15th of each month. Get news from the sake industry in Japan – including trends, business news, changes and developments, and technical information on sake types and production methods that are well beyond the basics – sent right to your inbox. Subscribe here today! 

Each issue will consist of four or five short stories culled from public news sources about the sake industry in Japan, as well as one or more slightly longer stories and observations by myself on trends, new developments, or changes within the sake industry in Japan.

This page uses Japanese characters. To view, you may need to install the Japanese-language font pack for your browser.

There are many other types of sake that are less often seen than the main categories listed on the previous page. Some of these are industry marketing terms with little meaning or significance, others constitute vastly different types and styles of sake. Let us look at a few of them here below.

Nigori-zake

Nigori-zake (the s of sake becomes a z for the sake of pronounciation) is cloudy sake, sake that has not been pressed fully from the fermenting rice solids. Most people have seen it: the white, cloudy, usually opaque sake sometimes seen in shops and restaurants. That is nigori-zake, which simply means “cloudy sake.”The “clouds”are nothing more than unfermented rice solids deliberately left floating around inside.

There are several styles or forms that nigori-zake can take. Much nigori-zake is sweet and smooth and creamy in texture. Then there is the “o chunky you’l want to eat it with a fork”variety of nigori-zake.

Naturally, nigori-zake does not offer the subtlety and refinement of good premium sake. Although it can indeed be tasty and fun, the remaining lees and their flavor easily overpower any other fragrances or gentle nuances of flavor. Also, nigori-zake should always be served a bit chilled.

Yamahai-shikomi & Kimoto

Yamahai-shikomi and Kimoto sake are two variations on the brewing method in which the yeast starter is made in a special way that allows more funky yeast and bacteria to be pesent, often lending the sake a gamier, wilder flavor that can be fascinating.

That is the short answer. Here is the long answer.

From hundreds of years ago until the early 1900′s, it was thought that the rice and koji had to be mixed and crushed into a puree when creating the moto in order for them to work properly together and convert the starches to sugars. To achieve this, kurabito (brewery workers) would ram oar-like poles into the small vat for hours on end to make a smooth paste of the contents; exhausting work to say the least. This pole-ramming activity is known as yama-oroshi.

This yama-oroshi pole ramming is one of the most classic sake-brewing scenes around, and is commonly seen in paintings, and on old films at sake museums such as those at the larger breweries in Nada. It is during such activities that kurabito of old would sing traditional brewing songs, all but forgotten now, to keep them awake and active, and to help them count strokes.

Then, in 1909, Mr. Kinichiro Kagi at the National Institute for Brewing Studies discovered that all that hard work simply wasn’t necessary. If left alone, the enzymes in the koji would eventually dissolve all the rice in the developing moto anyway. No tiring pole-ramming was needed. The only catch was that you had to add a bit more water, and keep the temperature a bit warmer, a comparatively painless process. *Now you tell us!* rose the silent cry from countless exhausted brewery workers, past and present.

When it became known then that the rough part (yama-oroshi) could be ceased (hai-shi), yama-oroshi hai-shi, shortened to simply yamahai, was born.

But technology wasn’t finished poking fun at tradition. Ah, no, there was more mockery in store. In 1911 it was discovered that by adding a bit of lactic acid to the moto at the beginning, the whole thing could be accomplished in about half the time. Lactic acid is a product of the yeast life cycle, and when present in sufficient amounts, it prevents wild yeast and unwanted bacteria from proliferating and adversely affecting the flavor.

When the yamahai process is used, since the lactic acid comes into existence more slowly, a bit of funky bacteria and even wild yeast cells inevitably make it into the moto as it develops. This gives rise to gamier, more unabashed flavor profile in the end.

Yamahai moto takes about a month to develop, and can be nerve wracking as those stray bacteria and wild yeast cells can ruin a whole batch if they are not kept in check to some degree. Sanitation is paramount, and pains must be taken to keep the developing moto covered and protected.

Adding lactic acid at the beginning speeds the process up, allowing the moto to be ready for use in about two weeks. It also protects it from the start, putting everyone at ease.

This alter-ego of yamahai, in which a bit of lactic acid is added in the beginning, is known as sokujo moto, or *fast-developing* moto. Due to a characteristic resistance to new-fangled technology, it took about ten years for sokujo-moto to gain acceptance on an industry-wide basis. However, most sake today is created using sokujo moto method, as it is faster and easier and leads to a cleaner flavor. In a sense, yamahai is for those with more eclectic tastes.

Flavor-wise, what are the differences? Yamahai has a higher sweetness and acidity, with richer, deeper, significantly more pronounced flavors. A nice descriptive word for most yamahai is *gamy*. Sokujo-moto (i.e. most sake on the market) is comparatively milder and cleaner in flavor. However, there is oodles of overlap; yamahai sake can occasionally be clean and refined, and sokujo-moto sake can (once in a while) be wild and gamy. So in the end, extreme cases notwithstanding, it’s not a whole lot to get worked up about.

Many, many kura (breweries) make yamahai or kimoto sake, but not all. Some specialize in it even. Due to the strange yeastfellows involved, yamahai moto must be prepared in a separate room from the rest of the moto preparation.

The *Sake to Look For* section below lists several yamahai-shikomi sake to look for and taste. (The word shikomi here simply refers to creating a tank of sake.) Certainly a worthwhile experience.

So, what you need to take away from this newsletter, the one-liner executive summary so to speak, is this: for yamahai sake, the yeast starter was created in a slow and laborious way that allowed more wild yeasts and bacteria to become a part of the brew. This usually leads to a richer, tangier flavor. That should demystify things a bit. Anything else you need to know, your palate will tell you.

Kimoto

Beyond the standard method (sokujo moto) and the yamahai-shikomi method discussed above, there are a few other ways of creating this yeast starter.

One such method is known as kimoto. As mentioned above, until about 1920, all sake was made by mixing rice, koji, and water to a puree in order to help the yeast cells reproduce faster. This was the original method, and since originally this was the only method there was, there was no name to differentiate it from other methods. Later, they needed to give it a name, and this name was Kimoto.

Kimoto, then, is the original method. Indeed, even today, brewers creating sake made using a kimoto yeast starter will stand around a small tub and mix, mix, mix in a rhythmical, robotic action to mash up the rice, koji and yeast to a paste-like consistency. Monotonous and tiring work to be sure, but aren’t all traditional methods?

This activity, by the way, helps speed up the natural production of lactic acid in the moto. Lactic acid will then protect the developing moto from stray bacteria that would contribute to strange flavors or even spoil the sake.

A kimoto yeast starter takes a bit longer than yamahai to create, but ironically, the sake that results from these two methods is similar in flavor profile. Like sake brewed with yamahai moto, sake brewed with a kimoto moto has a higher sweetness and acidity, with richer, deeper, significantly more pronounced flavors. Bitterness in the recesses is not uncommon. As with all sake brewing methods, though, the moto used is only one factor. In fact, the intention and skill of the brewer will dictate more about the final product than how the yeast starter was created.

As kimoto can exhibit these rougher, more pronounced flavors, one does not usually see this type of brewing method used with very high grade sake. Kimoto (and yamahai as well) is more commonly seen in perhaps junmai-shu grade sake, and less so in ginjo or daiginjo sake, simply because of the usually delicate nature of ginjo and daiginjo sake. Such refined flavor profiles might be overpowered by the slightly harsher facets resulting from kimoto or yamahai.

But there are exceptions, and wonderful exceptions at that. Take Daishichi, from Fukushima, for example. Daishichi is a wonderful brewery that is not afraid to take technical risks. One of these risks was to be the first brewery to brew a ginjo-shu (and then a daiginjo-shu) from a kimoto yeast starter. Although now there are many other premium kimoto sake, it is far from being a common practice in ginjo-shu brewing.

Note, as alluded to above, that whether or not a sake is kimoto, yamahai, or sokujo moto is independent of its grade. There are kimoto and yamahai sake that are of all grades: futsuu-shu, junmai-shu, honjo-zo, and all forms of ginjo-shu (straight ginjo, junmai ginjo, straight daiginjo, and junmai daiginjo). They are but methods of creating the yeast starter.

Nama-zake and its variations

Although more easily found within Japan than without, nama-zake is one of the most easily enjoyable types of sake on the market.

In short, nama-zake is unpasteurized sake. Almost all sake (anything not labeled nama; probably 99% of all sake on the market) has been pasteurized twice; once just after brewing, and once again after a maturation period or before shipping. This is done by either running the sake through a pipe submerged in hot water (about 65C is the norm), or submerging already bottled sake in same.

Pasteurization is done to deactivate heat-sensitive enzymes and microorganisms left over from the koji and yeast cells, thus ensuring they will not kick in at higher temperatures (room temperature is enough to activate some of these) and send the sake flavors out of kilter.

On the other hand, sake that is not pasteurized – namazake – has a much fresher, livelier and zingier touch to the flavor, with usually a much more active aromatic aspect. Although care and refrigeration are needed to keep it fresh, and although the sake overall is much less stable, it often can be worth the hassle and effort.

Note, however, that there are several variations on leaving sake unpasteurized, and the handful of terms used to refer to these can be a tad confusing. In an attempt to eschew obfuscation, here is a lexicon of all things nama.

As mentioned above, most sake is pasteurized twice. When the need to differentiate arises, such fully pasteurized sake is referred to as hi-ire, or “put in the fire.”

Full-fledged nama-zake, on the other hand, can also be referred to as nama-nama, or hon-nama; these are identical terms that indicate *totally* unpasteurized sake. Again, this would be used most often in comparisons to other types of nama.

One such other type would be nama-chozo. Chozo means store, although in this case it really refers to the typically six-month maturation period, and so nama-chozo is sake that has been “chozo-ed” in its unpasteurized form, and pasteurized one time only after maturation (usually a six month period) or just before shipping.

Then there is the opposite of this, nama-zume. This is sake that has been pasteurized once before storage, but *not* pasteurized before bottling (zume comes from tsumeru, meaning “to bottle.”). When this is traditionally released in the fall, just as the weather begins to cool down, it can also be known as hiya-oroshi. Got all that?

But the difference between these two is very subtle and a bit gimmicky. Nama-chozo and nama-zume have simply both been pasteurized once only and not twice. This gives the sake stability and yet allows it to retain some of the nature of nama-zake. In theory, anyway. More often than not totally unpasteurized sake is what you want to drink.

For all its user-friendliness, however, nama-zake is not unequivocally better than pasteurized sake. On the contrary, often that lively zing imparted by omitting pasteurization can overpower more subtle aspects of the sake. All you can taste is its nama-ness, so to speak.

Yet, if meticulous care is taken by the brewer in terms of storage temperature and preventing oxidation, the lissome freshness is more often than not an enhancement. Just be aware that there are various opinions out there.

Fortunately, in the end, all you really need to remember is that nama-zake is *usually* fresher, livelier and more stimulatingly enjoyable than pasteurized sake. That’s the raw truth about nama.

Nama-zake is great for hanami for several reasons. One reason is – like the beautiful, ephemeral sakura – nama-zake is short lived. Nama-zake must be kept quite cold, or there is a very high possibility it will undergo drastic changes.

When nama-zake goes bad, it becomes sweet and yeasty and quite funky in an unpleasant way, a condition known as hi-ochi. A white muck that floats suspended in the bottle (like lava in those old lava lamps) usually appears in bad nama-zake; that is your visual clue to steer clear.) Don’t confuse this with nigori-zake, however, which is deliberately left cloudy with the remains of rice.)

Although available all year round to some degree, nama-zake is most commonly found in the spring, just when the traditional brewing season ends. Nama-zake and spring seem to go well as they share youth and newness on many levels.

Note, too, that whether or not a sake is pasteurized is independent of its grade. You can find nama-zake in almost all grades of sake. Whether or not it has been pasteurized does not inherently affect its grade, be in table sake, junmai-shu, ginjo or daiginjo. It is simply but one more dimension of potential enjoyment.

For a glossary of all things sake, click here.

SAKE CONFIDENTAL 

Interested in learning more about sake?

Check out my book “Sake Confidential” on Amazon.

Sake Confidential is the perfect FAQ for beginners, experts, and sommeliers.

Indexed for easy reference with suggested brands and label photos. Includes:

• Sake Secrets: junmai vs. non-junmai, namazake, aging, dry vs. sweet, ginjo, warm vs. chilled, nigori, water, yeast, rice, regionality
• How the Industry Really Works: pricing, contests, distribution, glassware, milling, food pairing
• The Brewer’s Art Revealed: koji-making, brewers’ guilds, grading

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Each issue will consist of four or five short stories culled from public news sources about the sake industry in Japan, as well as one or more slightly longer stories and observations by myself on trends, new developments, or changes within the sake industry in Japan.

The Various Grades of Sake

Here are the main sake types and their flavor profiles, plus several common sake terms that will help you to understand what kind of sake you are tasting or buying, and help you determine your own likes and dislikes.

There are four basic types of sake, and each requires a different brewing method. Naturally, there are other special brewing techniques that are less common, but the four basic sake types are:

1. Junmai-shu (rice only; no adding of distilled alcohol)
2. Honjozo-shu (a tad of distilled alcohol is added)
3. Ginjo-shu (highly milled rice, with or without alcohol added)
4. Daiginjo-shu (even more highly milled rice, with/without added alcohol)
5. Nama-zake (refers to sake that is NOT pasteurized) and basically is mutually independent of the above four (Read in great depth about nama-zake here.)

These four combine to form what is known as Special Designation Sake, or “Tokutei Meishoshu.” Each of these has a general flavor profile based on the brewing methods employed. However, there is a whole lot of overlap between them. Very very often one cannot tell which type one is drinking,for some of these sake taste above their class (or just different) and others don’t live up to the billing (or are just different). So many things come into play — rice, water, skill of brewers — that it is next to impossible to isolate how a sake will taste based on which “type” it is, nor to fault it when it doesn’t fit the mold. Nonetheless, generalities can be useful. So enough with the disclaimers and let’s move on to our definitions:

Text Definitions

Junmai-shu: This can be translated as pure rice sake. Nothing is used in its production except rice, water, and koji, the magical mold that converts the starch in the rice into fermentable and non-fermentable sugars. Junmai-shu is made with rice that has been polished (milled) so that at least 30% of the outer portion of each rice grain has been ground away. The taste of junmai-shu is usually a bit heavier and fuller than other types, and the acidity is often a touch higher as well. Click here for flavor profile and further details on junmai.

Honjozo-shu: Honjozo is sake to which a very small amount of distilled ethyl alcohol (called brewers alcohol) has been added to the fermenting sake at the final stages of production. (Water is added later, so that the overall alcohol content does not change.) Honjozo, like Junmai-shu, is made with rice that has been polished (milled) so that at least 30% of the outer portion of each rice grain has been ground away. This, plus the addition of distilled alcohol, makes the sake lighter, sometimes a bit drier, and in the opinion of many, easier to drink. It also makes the fragrance of the sake more prominent. Honjozo often makes a good candidate for warm sake. Note that most run-of-the-mill cheap sake has an excessive amount of brewers alcohol added to it, which is not good. Honjozo has only a very small amount of added alcohol. Click here for flavor profile and further details on honjozo.

Ginjo-shu: This is sake made with rice that has been polished (milled) so that no more than 60% of its original size remains. In other words, at least the outer 40% has been ground away. This removes things like fats and proteins and other things that impede fermentation and cause off-flavors. But that is only the beginning: ginjo-shu is made in a very labor intensive way, fermented at colder temperatures for a longer period of time. The flavor is more complex and delicate, and both the flavor and the fragrance are often (but not always) fruity and flowery. Click here for flavor profile and further details on ginjo-shu.

Daiginjo-shu: Daiginjo-shu is ginjo-shu made with rice polished even more, so that no more than 50% of the original size of the grain remains. Some daiginjo is made with rice polished to as far as 35%, so that 65% is ground away before brewing. Daiginjo is made in even more painstaking ways, with even more labor intensive steps. Click here for flavor profile and further details on daiginjo-shu.

Junmai Ginjo and Junmai Daiginjo: Some ginjo-shu and daiginjo-shu are also junmai-shu. So a junmai ginjo-shu is a ginjo-shu with no added ethyl alcohol. If a ginjo or daiginjo is not labeled junmai, then the added alcohol is limited to the same small amounts as honjozo.

Namazake: Namazake is sake that has not been pasteurized. It should be stored cold, or the flavor and clarity could suffer. Namazake has a fresh, lively touch to the flavor. All types of sake (junmaishu, honjozo, ginjo-shu, and daiginjo-shu) can be namazake, or not. For more detailed information on nama-zake, go here.

Flavor Profiles

Honjozo-shu taste profile

Honjozo is sake wherein a small amount of distilled pure alcohol is added to smoothen and lighten the flavor, and to make the sake a bit more fragrant. Honjozo-shu, like Junmai-shu, must be made with rice with a Seimai Buai (degree of milling) of at least 70%. This is the number you will see on the label (if it is given at all), but what it means is that the rice has been polished so that no more than 70% of the original size of the grains remains. In other words, at least 30% of the outer portion of each rice grain has been ground away. Honjozo sake is often a bit lighter than other sake, due to the small amount of grain alcohol added at the end of the ferment. Remember that this is not a bad thing, in moderation, and brewers have been doing it for hundreds of years. It is NOT simply a cost cutting measure when used within the limits prescribed by honjozo. The flavor is lighter, and magically the fragrance becomes much more prominent. Below is a typical honjozo sake.

John’s Flavor Profile – Honjozo-shu

Honjozo-shu in details

For centuries, adding distilled pure alcohol to sake just as it completes its fermentation has been a part of the brewers’ art. Often, it is used to “cut” the sake and get more yield out of a single batch. However, when a sake is labeled “honjozo,” it means that the amount of sake is very limited, like to 120 liters per metric ton of rice used. The term honjozo indirectly means “the original brewing method,” and indicates that this is the proper way to use such added alcohol, as opposed to tossing in copious amounts, dropping the price, dulling the flavor, and lowering the hangover threshold.

This will not increase the yield much if at all. But honjozo sake is often a bit drier, lower in acidity, less cloying and fragrant than pure sake (see junmaishu). Note that premium “ginjo” sake in Japan is automatically limited to this small amount of added alcohol. In other words, you can have junmai ginjo and honjozo ginjo, but the latter is not referred to as honjo ginjo, only ginjo. That alone distinguishes if from junmai ginjo. Ginjo means sake brewed with rice milled so that no more than 60% of the grain remains. Confused?

At present, any sake that is not junmai (i.e., any sake with any added distilled alcohol at all) is taxed by the US at distilled beverage rates, making it unfeasible to import and distribute it. This will hopefully change in the not-too-distant future, allowing more premium sake into the US.

Junmai-shu taste profile

Junmaishu refers to pure sake, pure in the sense that no adjuncts (starches or sugars other than rice added to the fermenting mixture) were used, and that no brewer’s alcohol was added either. Junmai-shu, like Honzojo-shu, must be made with rice with a Seimai Buai (degree of milling) of at least 70%. This is the number you will see on the label (if it is given at all), but what it means is that the rice has been polished so that no more than 70% of the original size of the grains remains. In other words, at least 30% of the outer portion of each rice grain has been ground away. Junmai often has a fuller, richer body and a higher-than-average acidity. The nose is often not as prominent as other types of sake, nor are other parameters dependent on whether a sake is a junmai or not. Here is a typical junmai-shu flavor profile.

John’s Flavor Profile – Junmai-shu

Junmai-shu in detail

The product is nothing more than a straight fermentation of rice with the help of koji-kin (a starch-dissolving mold). Junmaishu is similar in concept to beer made according to German beer regulations, which allow nothing but malted barley, hops and water to be used. Sake that does not have the word junmaishu on the label will usually have brewer’s alcohol added (not necessarily a bad thing, mind you, if done sparingly), as well as (in lower grade stuff) sugars, artificial flavorings, acid-based additives, and a whole host of other cost-saving, hangover-promoting nastiest. Do keep this in mind though — the idea that real sake drinkers drink only junmaishu is a fallacy. It is not necessarily what everyone prefers, nor does it imply that everything else is rotgut. Not by any stretch. Junmaishu generally is a tad more full and heavy in flavor than other types, and often the acidity is slightly higher as well. It is often a good choice for matching with food, as it makes its presence known a bit more assertively than lighter sake.

Ginjo-shu taste profile

Ginjo sake is much more delicate and light and complex than the above two. Why? The rice has had the outer 40% of the grains polished away, leaving the inner 60% left. This is opposed to leaving 70% for junnmai and honjozo. On top of that, special yeast, lower fermentation temperatures, and labor-intensive techniques make for fragrant, intricate brews. Here is a typical ginjo chart.

John’s Flavor Profile – Ginjo-shu

Daiginjo-shu taste profile

Finally, there is daiginjo. This is fundamentally speaking an extension of daiginjo. The rice has been milled so that no more than 50% of the original size of the grains remains, although this often goes to 35%, and even more care has been taken to create sake representative of the pinnacle of the craft. Although there is a range of styles of daiginjo, and not all look like the chart below, here is a somewhat typical example.

John’s Flavor Profile – Daiginjo-shu

Other Important Sake Terms

Nigori-zake: Sake that is unfiltered.
Seishu Seishu: The legal name for sake, differentiating it from other alcoholic beverages.
Futsuu-shu: Any sake that is not junmai-shu, honjozo, ginjo-shu or daiginjo.
Jizake Jizake: Vague term that usually means sake from smaller breweries out in the boonies; sake that is not mass-produced.

Seimai Buai (or Rice Milling)

Junmai-shu and Honjozo-shu must be made with rice with a Seimai Buai (degree of milling) of at least 70%. This is the number you will see on the label (if it is given at all), but what it means is that the rice has been polished so that no more than 70% of the original size of the grains remains. In other words, at least 30% of the outer portion of each rice grain has been ground away.

Ginjo-shu, whether Junmai Ginjo-sho or non-Junmai Ginjo (usually called aru-ten ginjo, one does not say Honjo Ginjo) must have a Seimai Buai of at least 60%, meaning that the outer 40% or more has been polished away.

Daiginjo and Junmai Daiginjo (same phraseology rules apply here) must be made with rice with a Seimai Buai of 50% or more, meaning at least the outer half has been ground away. Often, Daiginjo goes as far as a 35% Seimai Buai.

What happens to the powder (called nuka) that is ground away? It is often used in Japanese-style cakes, for livestock feed, and can also be fermented and distilled elsewhere in a separate process. Nothing is wasted.

Remember, adding alcohol does not make a sake lower grade; it is part of one manner of brewing that produces specific results (like lighter, more fragrant sake with a more robust structure and perhaps longer shelf life). There are junmai purists, but there are those who feel adding alcohol is the correct way to brew, as is indicated in old brewing texts. Avoid the hype!

SAKE CONFIDENTAL 

Interested in learning more about sake?

Check out my book “Sake Confidential” on Amazon.

Sake Confidential is the perfect FAQ for beginners, experts, and sommeliers.

Indexed for easy reference with suggested brands and label photos. Includes:

• Sake Secrets: junmai vs. non-junmai, namazake, aging, dry vs. sweet, ginjo, warm vs. chilled, nigori, water, yeast, rice, regionality
• How the Industry Really Works: pricing, contests, distribution, glassware, milling, food pairing
• The Brewer’s Art Revealed: koji-making, brewers’ guilds, grading

SAKE INDUSTRY NEWS

If you are interested in staying up to date with what is happening within the Sake Industry and also information on more advanced Sake topics then Sake Industry News is just for you!

Sake Industry News is a paid subscription newsletter that is sent on the first and 15th of each month. Get news from the sake industry in Japan – including trends, business news, changes and developments, and technical information on sake types and production methods that are well beyond the basics – sent right to your inbox. Subscribe here today! 

Each issue will consist of four or five short stories culled from public news sources about the sake industry in Japan, as well as one or more slightly longer stories and observations by myself on trends, new developments, or changes within the sake industry in Japan.

Get a free copy of The Sake Dictionary pdf format!

A downloadable pdf version of the Sake Dictionary is available for free with the purchase of any of the products below. To claim your copy, after your purchase send an email to johngauntner@sake-world.com . After verifying your purchase, we will send you a pdf version of The Sake Dictionary. Act now, as the offer is limited.

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The Sake Notebook

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The basics of sake in a 14-page, easily digestible, very practical format that includes a list of 250 recommendable sake, and provides enough education on all things sake to fuel your study, appreciation and enjoyment of sake for years to come.

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A 15-minute, gorgeously presented slideshow of the sake production process, indicating every step from rice production and milling to rice cleaning and steaming to koji propagation to yeast starter to mash to bottling — all done in traditional old breweries in Japan. An indispensable help to those seeking to understand sake production visually. Created by John Gauntner.

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John Gauntner is recognized as the world’s leading non-Japanese sake expert.

A resident of Japan since 1988, he (necessarily) both speaks and reads Japanese fluently, and is well known in the sake industry as the window to making sake understandable and popular outside of Japan.

He has been writing and lecturing about sake since 1994, beginning with an eight-year stint writing the “Nihonshu” column in the Japan Times (Japan’s most widely read English language newspaper). He followed that with a weekly column on sake in Japanese for the Yomiuri Shimbun, Japan’s and the world’s most widely distributed Japanese newspaper. He has published six books on sake across two languages, hundreds of articles on the topic (see Articles & Books), publishes a free monthly newsletter and offers various digital products that make sake easily understandable.

His latest book, Sake Confidential, is – as the title indicates – a beyond-the-basics guide to understanding, tasting, selecting and enjoying sake.

He is the co-founder and content editor of the world’s first and only sake-only magazine, Sake Today, which was founded in January of 2014.

Known as “The Sake Guy,” and “The Sake Evangelist,” John has been quoted and/or mentioned in sake related articles in countless publications including The New York Times, Newsweek, Forbes, Business Week, and Rolling Stone. He has spoken at Harvard, Yale, and Columbia Universities, Wharton School of Business, and countless other venues across the US and Japan.

John is the only non-Japanese certified Master of Sake Tasting in the world, as administered by the Nihon Jouzo Kyoukai, or Brewing Society of Japan, the organization that, among other things, provides the majority of yeast strains to the brewing industry. He has also achieved the very difficult Sake Expert Assessor certification from Japan’s National Research Institute of Brewing. No other non-Japanese in the world has both of these certifications. Learn more about them elsewhere on this site.

He is furthermore the only non-Japanese to have won the “Kikizake Meijin” (Accomplished Sake Taster) award, presented by the Junsui Nihonshu Kyoukai (Pure Sake Association) for accuracy in sake tasting skills, an award he has won three times, in March 2001, March 2003, and March 2006.

In 2006, he was awarded the Sake Samurai designation the very first year it was awarded by the Junior Council of the Japan Sake and Shochu Producer’s Association, for helping to promote sake and sake culture around the world.

In May of 2015, he became the first and only non-Japanese – and in fact the first person outside of the sake industry – to participate as a tasting judge in the final tasting round of the Zenkoku Shinshu Kampyoukai, or National New Sake Competition, the most prestigious sake tasting competition in the industry. He is also the only non-Japanese to have provided regular sake-related consulting assistance in the form of lectures to the sake-brewing industry and the government of Japan via the auspices of the National Tax Administration. He is the only non-Japanese to sit on the panel of the Award for the Promotion of Japanese Cuisine Overseas, an award assessed by the Ministry of Forestry and Fisheries in Japan.

Several times each year, he runs the Sake Professional Course, a week-long intensive sake study course, held both in and outside of Japan, as well as the advanced level of that course. He formed and currently sits as the chairman of the Sake Education Council, a non-profit organization that overseas sake certification testing. More than 1200 people from ten countries have been certified and are recognized through this organization.

Most of each winter he finds himself traveling around Japan, visiting breweries regularly and constantly learning. He holds semi-seminars in Tokyo in English for the expat community, or those just passing through. Other efforts at educating and edifying about sake include a free monthly sake newsletter and various digital products and e-books available for purchase and immediate download in the Educational Products section.

John is available for seminars on sake, as well as consulting on sake-related projects. Interested parties please contact John directly.

Certifications

John Gauntner becomes the first and only non-Japanese to become certified as both a Sake Expert Assessor, as bestowed by the National Research Institute of Brewing, and as a Master of Sake Tasting as bestowed by Nihon Jouzou Kyoukai, the “Brewing Society of Japan.

About these certifications

On July 29 and 30, 2010, I successfully passed the remaining two sections of the very rigorous tasting exam given by the National Research Institute of Brewing. This is the only government-related sake certification in existence. I became only the second non-Japanese person – and only one of 38 people – to be certified as a Sake Expert Assessor.

This follows my certification as the only non-Japanese Master of Sake Tasting, bestowed by the Brewing Society of Japan (Nihon Jouzou Kyoukai), which I accomplished in June of 2010.

I am the only non-Japanese person to have accomplished the combination of these two certifications.

Amidst my gratitude at having passed, I only ask that I be able to use this in such a way as to further the understanding and enjoyment – not to mention the consumption – of sake everywhere around the world.

John Gauntner

Q1: What is sake? Is it a beer? Is it a wine? Is it a spirit?

Sake is a beverage fermented from rice, which is a grain. This would make it more of a beer than a wine. Yet, sake is not carbonated, and flavor-wise is closer to wine than beer, although it is indeed uniquely different from wine. Sake is not a distilled beverage, and is not even remotely related to gin, vodka or other spirits.

Q2: What is the alcohol content of sake?

Sake is generally between 15% and 17% alcohol.

Q3: How long does it take to brew sake?

Basically about a month. It can be a bit longer for ginjo-shu, including all the steps. Also, this does not include the ( usually) six-month period sake is “aged” before release.

Q4: Is sake aged like wine ? Is there such a thing as “vintage” sake?

In general, sake is not aged (beyond the six month period mentioned), and is meant to be consumed soon after purchase. If kept cold and dark, it will last six months to a year without degradation in flavor. There are exceptions, as some sake is deliberately aged. There is no such thing as a vintage year in the sake world. Be sure, then, to notice the bottling date on the label. If the sake was brewed in Japan, note that the year 10 (for Heisei 10) is 1998. So a sake with 9.4.23 would have been bottled on April 23, 1997. Avoid! Try to buy a sake bottled within the last year, at least. If you found it refrigerated, take one more sigh of relief. If not, it may not be totally fresh.

Q5: How should sake be stored?

Sake should be stored away from light and kept cool. Refrigeration is best, although not absolutely necessary unless the sake has not been pasteurized.

Q6: Is sake better than other alcoholic beverages for your health?

Beyond the normal pros and cons of alcohol consumption, note that sake is free from sulfites. It is also light and comparatively free of hangover-causing congeners. Premium sake is free from additives and preservatives.

Q7: How many types of sake are there?

From a production point of view, there are five basic types (see Types of Sake for details). Note that there are several other less-common types as well.

Q8: What are some good brands you can recommend?

How much time do you have? The best thing to do is to see John Gauntner’s Top 100 Sake Picks on his Sake World homepage.

Q9: What price range should I expect?

First of all, where are you? Although the sky’s the limit, more expensive (= better = more desirable) is definitely NOT the case. Good sake is not cheap, but it doesn’t need to be excessively priced. If you are in Japan, 2500 to 5000 yen for a 1.8 liter bottle, or 1200 to 2500 for a 720ml bottle, is a good range. In the US, that might come out to $35 to $70 for a 1.8 liter bottle, or $18 to $37. Unfortunately the price about doubles when it gets imported and goes through the system. Naturally, there is some fine US-produced sake for about half the above prices that are great values.

Q10: How can one tell a good sake from a bad sake?

If you do not have a chance to taste it, begin by trying to buy something with the words Junmai-shu, or Honjozo-shu, or Ginjo-shu or Daiginjo-shu on it. If you do have the chance to taste it, look for balance. Nothing should be cloying or pushy in the flavor profile. A sake can be quite dry or quite sweet and still be in balance. If it is lethargic and/or dull, and cloyingly sweet or gratingly harsh, avoid it. (Unless you like it that way!)

Q11: What is the proper color for sake?

Sake is generally almost transparent, which is often due to filtering at the kura (brewery) before shipping. This can be excessive at times, stripping a sake of its character. Often a sake has a light amber or gold color to it. This is often the case in full-flavored sake. This can be quite pleasant and add a new dimension to the sake experience. Beware: if a sake has been left in the light or allowed to age, it will turn a darker color, almost a lusterless brown. Sake that has degraded to this level is best avoided.

Q12: How many sake brands, or labels, are there?

There are about 1800 sake breweries (called kura in Japanese) in Japan, a number which is sharply decreasing each year. So there are 1700 brands, but most kura make several grades or types of sake, which are significantly different. So there are likely as many as 10,000 different sake among these breweries. In the US, there are presently seven breweries, most of which make more than one product.

Q13: How does US-brewed sake stand up to sake from Japan?

The breweries in Japan have a 1000 year head start, not only in terms of brewers and craftsmen, but in terms of special rice that makes great sake. It is understandably a richer and more diverse world, and the sake reflects that. There is good sake and bad sake being brewed in the US — just as there is in Japan. While in general the sake from Japan (assuming it has been cared for properly) is more flavorful, alive and character-laden, there is plenty of very drinkable sake being brewed in the US. Plenty. Also, as the cost of raw materials is significantly less in the US, sake brewed in the US can present quite a value to the consumer.

Q14: What is koji?

Koji is steamed rice onto which koji-kin (which means koji mold) has been cultivated. This mold is known in English as Aspergillus Oryzae. It is used in sake brewing to break down the starch molecules into sugar molecules that can be used as food by the yeast cells. Since rice is milled, there is no husk and therefore no enzymes, so malting (as in beer brewing) is not possible. Koji provides those enzymes to create the sugars for fermentation. This cultivation of koji-kin mold onto steamed rice to create koji itself is the heart of the sake brewing process.

Q15: Where can I get good sake near me?

Stay tuned to the Sake Pubs and Restaurants pages for detailed information on which restaurants near you carry premium sake.

Q16: What is the nihonshu-do, or Sake Meter Value?

This is a measure of the density of the sake relative to water. It is a very general reference to the sweetness or dryness of a sake. Note, however, that acid content and water hardness and temperature and other factors also contribute a great deal to the concept of sweet and dry.

Q17: What is the ideal temperature for serving sake?

In spite of the words of the venerable James Bond, most decent sake tastes best slightly chilled. In short, there is no one ideal serving temperature, but cool to chilled brings our the best in most good sake, with subtle differences presenting themselves at each temperature range. A lot of good sake goes well warmed, but not too hot! Piping hot sake is a carryover from decades ago when sake was not at the level it is now, and heating it was the best way to go. Times have changed, but in Japan as well as in the US, a lot of cheap sake is served very hot.

Q18: Can sake be served with food like wine is?

Absolutely. Naturally, this calls for experimentation, but in general sake is a wonderful accompaniment to fish and other light dishes. Also, premium sake also does well with strong or curiously flavored snacks taken in small morsels.

Q19: Are different kinds of rice used to brew sake, as grapes are for wine?

Yes, indeed. There are about 65 varieties of rice designated as sake rice, and naturally some are more prized than others. Like grapes, different rice strains grow best in particular regions. Some famous examples are Yamada Nishiki, Gohyaku Mangoku and Omachi.

Q20. Warming Sake. If you do not recommend heating Premium Sake, then can you recommend a fine sake that WILL heat well for our customers who wish it warm/hot?

I heartily recommend Kamo no Izumi and Sake Hitosuji, both of which are in the US, for gentle warming. See the archived newsletters for more such recommendations. Also, you are opening a Pandora’s Box here, as there is no simple answer to your question. It is all about personal preference, but more often the sake that is suited to gentle warming is earthier, richer and less fruity. Often the brewer will recommend this on the label, but more often you need to trust your tasting experience and preferences.

Q21. Where can I buy kasu (sake lees), or learn kasu recipes?

Outside Japan, we are unsure where you can buy sake lees, or kasu, but you might try both searching the net for sake “kasu” and shopping at Japanese grocery stores (if there are any near your location).

Q22. Where can I find sake with a snake in the bottle?

That is not sake. It is called “habu-shu” and is not available in the US. I believe customs will not let it in, something to do with a dead snake in the bottom of the bottle. By the way , it is made with Awamori, a strong distilled Okinawan beverage, not sake.

Q23. What should I do with my old sake? Is it drinkable? Does it get better with age?

Try it at least but do not have expectations. Sake does not age well, it was not really meant to be aged.

Q24. Where can I buy a nice tokkuri and guinomi sake set?

Japanese pottery guru Robert Yellin offers numerous articles and photos on tokkuri and guinomi, and his online gallery sells them. Please visit JapanesePottery.com, then use the estore search feature to find sake flasks or cups. Our site, eSake.com, offers a review of the various vessels used for drinking and pouring sake.

Q25. Could you identify this old bottle of sake I found in the basement of my grandfather?

No, unfortunately, I do not do appraisals for free.

Q26. Where can I buy KOJI?

One major producer is Akita Konno Shoten, but they do not have a site, or ship overseas that I know of. Try the below contact: Recently, several brewers are experimenting with koji obtained from SakeOne Corporation in Oregon, with apparently significantly improved results. This koji can be purchased from F.H. Steinbarts for about $8.00 for a 2.5 lb. Batch. For more information call Steinbarts, at 503-232-8793. Also, koji spores (as opposed to completed koji) are also available from Vision Brewing in Australia. According to proprietor Brendan Tibbs, the product is available online for anyone, and is particularly suitable to the home brewer.

Q27. Where Can I Learn More About Home-Brewing Sake?

If you have even a passing interest in brewing sake at home, you must check out The Sake Digest, a mailing list on sake home brewing maintained by Jim Liddil at jliddil@vms.arizona.edu. On this list, issues both stylistic and technical, detailed and general, are discussed by enthusiastic and knowledgeable home brewers. Fred Eckhardt, easily the most experienced sake home-brewer in North America, regularly generously imparts his experience and wisdom to readers. A message is generated perhaps twice a week, so one in not inundated with information and countless emails. It is quite interesting to follow along with the apparently successful efforts of these brewers from a cyber-distance.

Q28. Where Can I Buy Organic Sake?

Not sure where to buy it but about 15 Japanese companies sell organic sake and one is Yuki no Bosha, which a Google search should bring up. It is in Akita Prefecture, Japan. They do export it to the US. Another is Dewatsuru. And recently it is being produced by SakeOne in Oregon, USA.

Q29. If I host a sake tasting party, and I intend to serve various different sake, how can one “clear the palate” between tastes?

First, get buckets to spit into. Most professional tasters do not DRINK the sake; they pour just a little into their tasting cup (any type of guinomi will do), sniff it carefully, then sip it, swirl it around in their mouth, then spit it out into the bucket. Then they write their tasting notes. Second, have plenty of bottled water available. In between tasting different sake, many professional tasters simply drink water to cleanse their palette.

Q30. Vegetarian Sake. As a sake lover and a new vegan, I need to find sakes that do not use any animal product in their brewing and refining. Can you give me any information on how to double check a sake as “vegan-friendly?”

Most sake does not use gelatin finings, although we cannot determine what does and what does not, and there is no way to know from the label. Powdered active charcoal is used for fining of most Japanese sake . This is made from (as far as we know) wood and plants, but we cannot be sure about all stuff at all places. Sake called “muroka” is unfiltered and unfined so that would be a safe bet.

Q31. What is the sugar content of sake, and how many calories are there in a typical serving of sake?

There are between 180 and 240 calories, or 20 to 27 grams of carbohydrates, in 5.5 oz glass of sake. Protein and fat are negligible. During the brewing of sake, the yeast cells eat the natural sugar created by the starches in the rice and give off alcohol and carbon dioxide. The starch-to-sugar conversion, and the fermentation of that sugar, take place simultaneously in the same tank. This makes sake unique; in other beverages the conversion to sugar occurs first, and fermentation later. Also, another important parameter to be aware of is the Nihonshu-do. Also called the Sake Meter Value (abbreviated SMV) in English, this is the specific gravity of a sake. It indicates how much of the sugars created from the starches in the rice were converted to alcohol, and how much remained to contribute to sweetness. By ancient convention, the higher the number, the drier the sake. What is the range? In theory, it is open-ended. In practice, + 10 or so is quite dry, -4 or so is quite sweet, and +3 or so is neutral. Keep in mind this parameter is affected by acidity, temperature, accompanying food, and a host of other factors so that it is limited in its usefulness.

Any other questions? Please contact John.